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MiniM, TemperiDg, BoiieaiiDg 

AND 

FORGING OF STEEL 



A TREATISE ON THE PRACTICAL TREATMENT AND 
WORKING OF HIGH AND LOW GRADE STEEL 

COMPRISING 

THE SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF STEEL, THE MOST 
MODERN AND APPROVED HEATING, HARDENING, TEMPER- 
ING, ANNEALING AND FORGING PROCESSES, THE USE 
OF GAS BLAST FORGES, HEATING MACHINES AND 
FURNACES, THE ANNEALING AND MANUFACTURING 
OF MALLEABLE IRON, THE TREATMENT AND USE 
OF SELF-HARDENING STEEL, WITH , SPECIAL 
REFERENCE TO CASEHARDENING PROCESSES, , 
THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF MILL- 
ING CUTTERS AND PRESS TOOLS, THE USE 
OF MACHINERY STEEL FOR CUTTING 
TOOLS, FORGING AND WELDING, HIGH 
GRADE STEEL FORCINGS IN AMERICA, 
FORGING OF HOLLOW SHAFTS, 
• DROP-FORGING, AND GRIND- 
ING PROCESSES FOR TOOLS 
AND MACHINE PARTS 



BY ' > ' , 

JOSEPH V. WOODWORTH 

Author of "Dies, Their Construction and Use''* 

Illustrated by 201 Engravings 



NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 

132 Nassau Street 

New York 

1903 



■^ 



a o 



COPYRIGHTED, I902, 
BY 

Norman W. Heni^ey & Co. 



Macgowan & Slipper 

printers 

30 Beekman Street 

New York 

U. S. A. 



^-:^^^(>3m 



TO 

GEORGE WOODWORTH 

MY FATHER, FRIEND AND FEI<I,OW WORKER, TO WHOSE I,OVE, 

AFFECTION AND ENCOURAGEMENT I OWE MORE THAN 

CAN EVER BE REPAID, THIS BOOK IS 

AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED 





PREFACE. 



29 



In preparing this treatise the author has had as an incitement 
the knowledge that tliere was very little -information to be had on 
the treatment and working of steel of practical value to the gen- 
eral mechanic. For this reason he is convinced that a practical 
book on the treatment and working of the metal as modern de- 
mands necessitate, that is, in regard to heating, annealing, forg- 
ing, hardening and tempering processes, cannot fail to prove of 
interest and value to all mechanics who use tools or who are in 
any way engaged in the working of metals. 

When the fact is considered that tools made from the best 
grades of steel will not perform the work required unless they 
have been treated properly during the various heating processes, 
the value of a knowledge of the most satisfactory and approved 
arrangements and methods to the mechanic is at once apparent. 

With the object in view of giving to practical men a book 
treating and presenting this paramount subject in a clear, con- 
cise and practical manner, the author has drawn upon a personal 
experience of many years, gathered all the information obtain- 
able, eliminating all unnecessary and obsolete matter, and added 
all that is approved, up-to-date and authentic. 

In regard to originality we lay claim to very little, for, al- 
though the facts contained in a large number of the items have 
been gained through years of experience at the forge, bench and 
machine, we are indebted to others for a greater portion, and 
merely claim to have, as a great poet has said, "gathered the 
fruits of other men's labors and hound them zvith our ozvn string." 
To the technical journals, notably the American Machinist, Ma- 
chinery, the Iron Age, the Scientific American, the Age of Steel, 
Modern Machinery, and Shop Talk; to master mechanics of 
well-known shops, to many American machine-tool and tool and 
die making concerns, and to individual fellow craftsmen, the 
author takes pleasure in herein acknowledging his indebtedness, 
with thanks for a larg-e number of facts contained in this volume. 

The chapters on Miscellaneous Methods, Tables, and on Emery 



6 PREFACE. 

Wheel Grinding of tools, have been thought so near akin to the 
general subject of this work, that they have been given a place and 
will be found valuable to the tool maker and general machinist. 

Much valuable information was furnished, and many of the 
engravings which were used to illustrate the work were kindly 
loaned to the author by the following named firms : Cincinnati 
Milling Machine Company, Cincinnati, Ohio; American Gas Fur- 
nace Company, New York, N. Y. ; Faneuil Watch Tool Com- 
pany, Brighton, Boston, Mass. ; Standard Tool Company, Cleve- 
land, Ohio; J. H. WilHams Company, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; the 
Rogers & Hubbard Company, Middletown, Conn. ; Pratt & 
Whitney, Hartford, Conn. ; Garvin Machine Company, New 
York, N. Y. ; Armstrong Brothers Tool Company, Chicago, 111. ; 
Chicago Flexible Shaft Company, Chicago, 111. ; Nicholson File 
Company, Providence, R. I. ; E. W. Bliss Company, Brooklyn, 
N. Y. 

Although the writer is aware that his efforts will meet with 
criticism from those who may feel that it is not technical enough, 
or that some particular process or special method has been ig- 
nored, he is pleased to assure the reader that all that it does con- 
tain has been authenticated, and he is convinced that the 
majority will find in its pages information which will assist them 
in overcoming trials and difficulties met with in the working of 
this "truly zvondrous metal." 

Brooklyn, N. Y., December, 1902. 

Joseph V. Wood worth. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

STEEL — ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION — STEEL FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES — 

THE TREATMENT OF WELL-KNOWN BRANDS OF STEEL 

— THE EFFECTS OF HEAT. 

Selection and Identification of Steel — Steel for Different Purposes 
— Die Steel — Steel Die Forgings — The Treatment of High-Car- 
bon Steels — Experimental Treatment — The Treatment and 
Working of Well-known Brands of Tool Steel — Heating for 
Forging — Heating for Hardening — Treatment of High-speed 
Self-hardening Steels — Annealed Die and Tool Steel — Treat- 
ment of Annealed Die and Tool Steel — Treatment of Air-hard- 
ening Steel — The Best Steel for Tools — Testing Tool Steel — 
The Grain of Steel — Testing for Toughness — Economy in Test- 
ing Steel Before Using — Decarbonized Steel Surfaces — How to 
Know Tool" Steel from Mild Steel — Tool Holders and Tools — 
Self-hardening Steel Cutting Tools — Speeds for Cutting Tools 
— Cutting and Durability Qualities of Steel — Judgment, Experi- 
ence, and Perception in the Working of Steel — The First Effects 
of Heat — Unequal Expansion — Heat Effects on Clay — 
The Amount of Force Exerted in Expansion or Contraction — 
The Second Effect of Heat — Table of Expansion from 32 Deg. 
F. to 212 Deg. F. — Kinds of Steel Produced in America by 
the Crucible and Open-hearth Processes 13 to 2^ 

CHAPTER H. 

ANNEALING PROCESSES THE TERMS ANNEALING, HARDENING, AND TEMPER- 
ING DEFINED — THE ANNEALING OF MALLEABLE CASTINGS. 

The Terms Defined — How to Thoroughly Anneal High-grade Tool 
Steel Parts — The Proper Heat for Annealing — Annealing in 
the Charcoal Fire — Good Steel for Good Tools — Annealing — 
An Annealing Box for Small Parts — Water Annealing — The 
Effect of the Water Anneal — The Annealing of Tap Steel — 
Reannealing Tap Blanks — How to Heat for Annealing — An- 
nealing a Small Quantity of Steel— Annealing Steel in the 
Open Fire — Quick Methods for Softening Steel — To Anneal 
Doubtful Steel — Annealing Chilled Cast-iron Dies for Drilling 
^Annealing White or Silver Iron — The Annealing of Malle- 



CONTENTS. 

able Castings and the Manufacture of Malleable-iron Machine . 
Parts — The Foundry, and Preparation of the Castings — An- 
nealing Furnaces — Packing the Castings — Different Methods 
of Packing Castings in Pots — Annealing, Straightening and 
Finishing Malleable Castings — Heating the Annealing O'vens — 
General Matter Relative to Malleable-iron Manufacturing. .. .36 to 49 



CHAPTER HI. 

THE HEATING AND COOLING OF STEEL LOCATION OF HEATING ARRANGE- 
MENTS THE USE OF GAS BLAST FURNACES AND HEATING MACHINES 

TOUGH STEEL AND HARD STEEL — THE DIFFERENCE. 

The Heating and Cooling of Steel — Proper Equipment for Harden- 
ing and Tempering — Pomts to be Remembered — The Loca- 
tion of the Heating Furnace — The Use of Gas-blast Furnaces 
and Heating Machines — Gas-blast Forges — Their Use — Combi- 
nation Gas Furnace for General Machine-shop Work — Gas 
Forge for Small Work — Gas Forge for Heating Drop Forgings 
— Air-tempering Furnace — Gas Forge for Knife and Shear 
Blades — Bench Forge — Oven Furnaces for Annealing and 
Hardening — Case-hardening Furnaces — Heating-machine for 
Hardening the Edges of Mower Blades — Heating-machine for 
Hardening Cones and Shells — Heating-machine v^^ith Revolving 
Trays — Heating-machine for Small Parts — Barrel Heating-ma- 
chine for Hardening and Tempering Balls, Saw Teeth, Screws, 
etc — Construction and Operation of Barrel Heating-machine — 
Heating-machine for Tempering and Coloring Steel — Circular 
Annealing and Hardening Furnace — Oil Tempering Furnaces 
— Automatic Heating-machine for Hardening Chain — Cylindri- 
cal Case-hardening Furnaces — Lead Hardening Furnace — 
Melting Pots — Cyanide Hardening Furnaces — Regular Sizes of 
Muffles — MufBe Furnaces — -Tough Steel and Hard Steel — the 
Difference 50 to 94 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE HARDENING OF STEEL — HARDENING IN WATER^ BRINE, OIL, AND SOLU- 
TIONS — SPECIAL PROCESSES FOR SPECIAL STEEL. 

Judgment and Carefulness in Hardening — Successful Hardening — 
Different Quenching Baths— Their Effect on Steel — General 
Directions and Rules for the Hardening of Steel — Distortion 
Through Uneven Heating — The Hardening Fire and the Heat — 
Quenching for Hardening — The Hardening of Long Slender 
Tools — Hardening Small Parts and Long Thin Parts — Harden- 
ing in Solutions — Heating in Hot Lead for Hardening — Hard- 
ening Metal Saws — Mixture to Prevent Lead from Sticking 



CONTENTS. 9 

when Heating for Hardening — Hardening Long Taper Ream- 
ers — The Use of Clay in Hardening — Special Instructions for 
Hardening and Tempering — Hardening and Tempering Round- 
thread Dies — Hardening Bushings, Shell Reamers, Hobs, etc. — 
Hardening and Tempering Collet Spring Chucks — -The Taylor- 
White Process for Treating Steel 95 to ii6 

CHAPTER V. 

TEMPERING — BY COLORS — IN OIL — ON HOT PLATES — BY THERMOMETER — IN HOT 
WATER — IN THE SAND BATH — BY SPECIAL METHODS. 

Tempering — Tempering in the Sand Bath — The Effects of Slow 
Heating and Tempering — Tempering in Oil — Hardening and 
Tempering Springs — Blazing off Springs — Tempering Rock 
Drills in Crude Oil — Hardening and Tempering Mill 
Picks — Straightening Hardened Pieces that have Warped 
— Tempering Thin Articles — Tempering in the Charcoal 
Flame — Tempering Wood-planer Knives — Tempering Swords 
and Cutlasses — Drawing Polished Steel Articles to a 
Straw Color or Blue — Tempering Solutions — Table of Melt- 
ing Points of Solids — Table of Tempers to Which Tools 
should be Drawn — Table of Suitable Temperatures for An- 
nealing, Working and Hardening — Table of Suitable Tem- 
peratures for Case-hardening, Core Ovens, Drying Kilns, Bak- 
ing Enamels and Vulcanizing Rubber — Table of Temper Colors 
of Steel 1 17 to 12S 

CHAPTER VI. 

CASE-HARDENING PROCESSES — THE USE OF MACHINERY STEEL FOR CUTTING 
TOOLS AND THE TREATMENT OF IT. 

The Use of Machine Steel for Press Tools — Outfit for Fine- 
Grain Case-hardening — Packing and Heating the Work — Case- 
hardening Cutting Tools — How to Case-harden, Color and An- 
neal with Granulated Raw Bone — To Case-harden Without 
Colors — Hardening Extra-heavy Work — Hardening Drawbridge 
Disc and Similar Work — Hardening Five-inch Thrust Bearing 
Rings — How to Harden Rolls, Leaving Tenons Soft for Rivet- 
ing — How to Case-harden Malleable Iron — How to Use Old 
Bone — Bone and Charcoal — Using the Tell-tale — Obtaining Col- 
ors with Granulated Raw Bone — Preparation of the Work — 
Charring the Bone — Packing the Work — Heating — The Bath — 
How to Dump the Work — Cleaning the Work — Colors from a 
Light Straw to a Deep Blue — Directions for Annealing with 
Granulated Raw Bone — Cooling — Annealing Low-carbon Steel 
Bars — Annealing Iron Castings — Case-hardening with Cyanide 
of Potassium — Accurate Sectional Case-hardening — To Produce 



lO CONTENTS. 

Fine-grained Hardened Machine-steel Parts — Case-hardening 
the Ends of Steel Rails — Very Deep Case-hardening — To Case- 
harden Small Iron Parts — To Case-harden with Charcoal — 
Moxon's Method of Case-hardening — A Case-hardening Mixture 
for Iron — A Case-hardening Paste — Case-hardening Polished 
Parts — Case-hardening as it should be Understood 129 to 142 

CHAPTER VII. 

HARDENING AND TEMPERING MILLING CUTTERS AND SIMILAR TOOLS. 

Hardening Milling Cutters in the Open Fire — Hardening Large 
Milling Cutters — Hardening and Tempering Milling Cutters in 
Water and Oil — Advantages of the Method — Hardening V- 
shaped Milling Cutters — Hardening Hollow Mills — Milling 
Cutters 143 to 155 

CHAPTER VIII. 

HARDENING, TEMPERING AND STRAIGHTENING ALL KINDS OF SMALL TOOLS. 

Hardening Ring Gages — Dipping Small Tools when Hardening — 
Dipping Half-round Reamers or "Gun" Reamers when Hard- 
ening — Dipping Fluted Reamers when Hardening — Straighten- 
ing Long Tools which have Warped in Hardening — Hardening 
Very Thin Tools so as to Prevent Warping — Warping of 
Long Tools in Hardening — Temperature Tell-tales for Use 
in Heating Steel — Working Steel for Tools — Hardening Small 
Saws — Hardening Cutter-bits — Hardening Mixture for General 
Smith Work — Tempering Flat Drills for Hard Stock — To Tem- 
per Gravers — To Temper Old Files — Hardening and Tempering 
Small Taps, Knives, Springs, etc. — Tempering Small Spiral 
Springs — To Draw Small Steel Parts to a Blue 156 to 161 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES AND ALL KINDS OF PRESS TOOLS FOR 
THE WORKING OF SHEET METAL. 

The Hardening ' and Tempering of Press Tools— Hard or Soft 
Punches and Dies — Hardening and Tempering Drop Dies — 
How to Harden Large Ring Dies — How to Harden a Long 
Punch so as to Prevent Warping— Steel for Small Punches 
— Hardening a Blanking Die— Cracks in Dies— Their Cause 
— Hardening the Walls of a Round Die— Reannealing a 
Punch, or a Die Blank — Warping of Long Punches in 
Hardening — Hardening Very Small Punches— Tempering 
Small Punches— Hardening Fluids for Dies— Hardening Thick 



CONTENTS. II 

Round Dies — Hardening Poor Die Steel — Tempering a Combi- 
nation Cutting and Drawing Punch — Hardening and Tempering 
a Split Gang Punch — Hardening and Tempering Large "Cut- 
ting" or "Blanking" Dies 162 to 174 

CHAPTER X. 

TORGING AND WELDING — HOW TO ACCOMPLISH SATISFACTORY RESULTS IN 
THE FORGING AND WELDING OF STEEL AND IRON — DROP FORGING. 

Welding Heats — A Good Welding Flux for Steel — Heating Steel 
for Forging — Steel for Tools which Require to be Forged- 
High-grade Steel Forgings in America — How Hollow Shafts 
are Forged — Difficulties Encountered in Introducing High- 
grade Forgings — Cold Crystallization does not Occur — Tests 
of Steel under Repeated Stresses — Charcoal — Welding Powder 
for Iron and Steel — To Make Edged Tools from Cast Steel and 
Iron — To Weld Cast Iron — Welding Composition for Cast Steel — 
How to Restore Overheated Steel — Composition to Toughen 
Steel — Pointer — To Weld Buggy Springs — A French Welding 
Flux — Compound for Welding Steel — Fluxes for Soldering and 
Welding — Substitute for Borax in Welding — Drop-forging — 
Directions for Setting up Forging Drop-Hamm.ers — Government 
Use of Nickel Steel for Forgings 175 to 194 

CHAPTER XI. 

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, PROCESSES, KINKS, POINTERS AND TABLES FOR 
USE IN METAL WORKING. 

Increasing the Size of a Reamer when Worn — To Case-harden 
Cast Iron — Improved Soldering and Tinning Acid — Rules for 
Calculating Speed — Lubricant for Water Cuts — Babbitting — Lay- 
ing out Work — Lubricant for Working Aluminum — To Prevent 
Rust — Lubricant for Drilling Hard Steel — Coppering Polished 
Steel Surfaces — To Blue Steel Without Heating — To Remove 
Scale from Steel — To Dis'tinguish Wrought Iron and Cast 
Iron from Steel — Anti-friction Alloy for Journal Boxes — Solder 
for Aluminum — Case-hardening with Kerosene — Case-harden- 
ing Cups and Cones — Drills — Reamer Practice — Reamers and 
Reaming — Number of Teeth Generally Milled in Reamers — 
Grinding Twist Drills — Circular Forming Tools — Plain Form- 
ing Tools — Facing — Counterboring — Soldering — Lacquer for 
Brass Articles — Removing Rust from Polished Steel and Iron — 
Miscellaneous Information — Useful Information — Table of 
Decimal Equivalents of Millimeters and Fractions of Milli- 
tneters — Table of Decimal Equivalents of Parts of an Inch — 
Table of Constants for Finding Diameter at Bottom of Thread — 



12 . CONTENTS. 

—Table of English or American (U. S.) Equivalent Meas- 
ures—Table of Weights and Areas of Round, Square and 
Hexagon Steel— Table of Weights of Iron and Steel Sheets 
—Table of Weights of Square and Round Bars of Wrought 
Iron in Pounds per Lineal Foot— United States Weights and 
Measures — Table of Tap Drills for Machine Screw Taps — 
Table of Size of Drills for Standard Pipe Taps— Table of 
Different Standards for Wire Gage used in U. S. — Table of 
United States Standard Screw Threads — Formulas for Sharp 
V Thread, United States Standard Thread, Whitworth 
Standard Thread — The Acme Standard Thread — Table of 
Thread Parts — Table of ^Average Cutting Speeds for Drills — 
Table of Cutting Speeds — Horse Power of Belts — Cutting 
Lubricant 195 to 225 

CHAPTER XII. 

GRINDING — THE ACCURATE AND RAPID GRINDING OF TOOLS AND SMALL 
- MACHINE PARTS — EMERY WHEELS — THEIR USE. 

Cutter and Tool Grinding — Prominent Features — Grinding a Spiral 
Mill — Grinding Angular Cutters — Grinding Side-milling Cut- 
ters — Grinding Milling Cutters or Metal Slitting Saws from 8 
to 12 Inches in Diameter — Gear Cutter Grinding — Grinding 
Formed Cutters — How to Grind a Worm-wheel Hob — Grinding 
a Hand Reamer — Grinding a Taper Reamer — How to Grind a 
Hardened Drilling Jig Bushing — How to Grind a Taper Spindle 
— How to Grind a Slitting Knife with Beveled Edges — Internal 
Grinding — Grinding a Straight Edge — Grinding a Shear Plate 
— How to Grind a Die Blank' to the Required Angle — Grinding 
a Formed Tool on its Face — The Emery Wheel Used as a 
Metal Slitting Saw^Grinding a Gage to a Given Dimension- 
Attachment for Surface Grinding — How to Grind Milling Cut- 
ters and Metal Slitting Saws Straight or Concave— General 
Directions — Diamond Tool Holder — A Small Cutter Grinder — 
Illustration Showing Various Work Performed on a Different 
Type of Universal Cutter and Tool Grinder — Attachments 
which are Used on the Machine — Emery Wheels — Their Use — 
Approximate Speeds for Emery and Polishing Wheels — Table 
of Articles Made from Crucible Steel, Giving About Percent- 
age of Carbon they should Contain 226 to 275 



CHAPTER I. 

STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION STEEL FOR VARIOUS 

PURPOSES THE TREATMENT AND WORKING OF WELL-KNOWN 

BRANDS OF TOOL STEEL THE EFFECTS OF HEAT. 

Selection and Identification of Steel. 

It would be a fine thing if we could start with giving the 
name of a brand of tool steel which would answer for all kinds 
of tools ; would harden without trouble, and temper evenly in the 
"good old-fashioned way." But as we cannot do this, we can 
only hope that some day a steel which will answer for all purposes 
will be produced ; until then we must rest content with what 
we have got and through experience learn of the best brand of 
steel to use for a given purpose. 

There is absolutely no economy in purchasing tool steel be- 
cause it is cheap. In fact, economy in steel can only be obtained 
by purchasing a grade of steel which is uniformly of the best 
quality, as its superior lasting quality, and its ability to retain a 
cutting edge for long periods make it the cheapest and most 
satisfactory in the end. Such steel costs more in the beginning, 
but then cheap steel has often cost almost "its weight in gold" 
before it was thrown out. Almost every machinist, who has 
worked in any number of shops, has had experience with the 
different grades and brands of steel for tools, and he knows that 
cheap steel is expensive. 

As the first thing necessary to allow of successful metal work- 
ing, in any branch of the machinist's art is good steel, too much 
attention cannot be given to the selection of a steel of uniform 
qualit}^ This can only be brought about through experience in 
working and using the different brands for purposes required, 
and when a grade has been procured which can be handled suc- 
cessfully and gives satisfaction in use, stick to it and never 
change until you are convinced that you have struck a better one. 

After having selected the brands and grades of steel that are 
suited for the classes of work required, adopt some method of 
marking each separate brand so the workmen will be able to 
recognize them without the fire and water test. The best way 
to insure against difficulty arising from the mistakes in using 
the wrong brand of steel is to have each brand or grade striped 



14 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

with a different color paint. Have some one stripe the steels 
along their entire length, as soon as received, and either place each 
brand in a separate rack with the name of the steel on it, or have 
a board hanging near the steel rack with short stripes of paint of 
the colors used and the name of each brand next the stripe de- 
noting it. In this manner the brand of steel desired can be found 
in a moment with the certainty that it will be the right brand. 

Steel for Different Purposes. 

For small reamers, taps, small round punches, which are to 
cut at slow speeds, and other tools of a like nature, use drill rod, 
not necessarily Stubs — any good American drill rod will answer 
as well. Never use a very high carbon steel for taps and dies or 
other threading tools. 

Die Steel. 

In no branch of the machinist's art should more attention be 
given to the importance of the proper selection of steel than in 
die-making, as the working qualities of the tools when finished 
and their efficiency depend upon this more than anything else. 

When ordering steel which is to be used for dies be sure to 
specify that annealed steel is wanted, as the saving of time and 
labor in the working of it, and the certainty of the results in the 
hardening and tempering of it after the re-annealing, will be a 
source of gratification to the mechanic. When these results 
are considered the slight extra cost of annealed steel is insig- 
nificant. 

As to the grade of steel to use for dies, be sure to get a good 
grade, and as there are several brands of steel on the market 
which are used principally for dies and punches no difficulty 
should be experienced in procuring a grade or brand which will 
prove suitable for any special class of sheet-metal work. 

Steel Die Forgings. 

When steel forgings are required, from which dies are to 
be made, the job should be given to a smith who understands 
this branch of his art, as in order for the forgings to machine 
well and allow of being hardened and tempered as desired, so 
that the finished tools will accomplish the required results, the 
smith must understand such work. As too high a welding heat, 
a raw weld joint, rapid cooling of the forging and other effects 



STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 1$. 

of carelessness are often responsible for the spoiling of an ex- 
pensive tool in hardening, a good smith is necessary for such 
work. 

The Treaiment of High-Carbon Steel. 

The treatment of high-grade tool steel is a subject which has 
been discussed often and to great length, but it is one of the 
greatest importance to steel users and too much cannot be written 
on it. How often has a piece of steel been condemned as being 
of inferior quality when the fault lay, not in the steel, but ia 
those who had selected and used it. The causes of failure in 
using a high-grade steel are numerous. Often the proportion of 
carbon is not right for the purpose required ; then again, the steel 
is overheated when forging, annealing, hardening or tempering, 
most frequently in the tempering process, which in high-grade 
steel is a delicate operation requiring knowledge, skill and ex- 
perience. 

It is impossible for a machinist to determine the correct har- 
dening process for high-carbon steels unless he is familiar with 
the characteristic appearance of fractures of a specimen which 
has been treated properly. Any operator who has worked steel 
of good quality and is familiar with the appearance of the differ- 
ent fractures has no difficulty in avoiding injurious treatment 
during the hardening process. It is, however, impossible to 
describe the appearance of fractures of high-grade steel of various 
hardness in a manner to allow of their being understood by 
mechanics in general, or in fact to be practically useful to any 
great extent, this knowledge only being communicated to the 
operator through experience. 

Experimental Treatment. 

Some idea may be gained of the great and varied alterations 
produced in high-carbon steel through the different methods of 
hardening by a description of a test experiment. If a forged or 
rolled bar of high-grade steel is nicked at a number of places 
equidistant apart along its entire length a suitable specimen will 
be obtained for experimental purposes. Place one end of the bar 
in the fire far enough to allow of heating the first section up to 
the nick to a white heat. Thus the rest of the bar, being out of 
the fire, will be heated to a decreasing temperature toward the 
other end. As soon as the first section is at a white heat, thus 
burning the steel, through its being of a high carbon percentage^ 



i6 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



and the heat of the remainder of the bar becomes a dull red, take 
the bar from the fire and quench it instantly into a cold water bath. 
Leave the metal in the bath until cold and then remove and dry 
it. By testing with a file the first section will, of course, prove 




the hardest, and the intermediate sections of degrees of hardness 
passing from the softest to the hardest. Thus the conditions of 
the different sections, when broken apart at the fracture points, 
will show the operator the results in the steel when hardened at a 
given temperature. On breaking the pieces at each neck it will be 



STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 



17 



noticed that very considerable changes have taken place in the 
grain of the metal. The first piece, which has been burnt, through 
heating to a white, has a very open and crystallized fracture, 
while the succeeding pieces are of a closer grain as they approach 




the end. Thus the selected piece or section, which has been 
subjected to the proper degree of heat in accordance with the 
carbon percentage of the steel, will be found to possess that per- 
fectly even grain and velvety appearance which is looked upon 
by all experienced tool steel users as a condition to be prized in 



iS HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

hardened steel. The first pieces will probably show cracks from 
being quenched at too high a temperature, while those at the other 
end will be hardened throughout as desired. Thus, throug'h an 
experiment of this kind, we learn that in order to make a piece of 
steel hard and tough the temperature must be sufficiently high 
to allow of hardening it through, but not high enovigh to open 
the grain. 

The Treatment and Working of W ell-Knozvn Brands of Tool 

Steel. 

The brands of tool steel in general use throughout the United 
States and the ones which are best known and understood among 
steel users are Jessop's, Hobson's, Crescent, Styrain, Howe- 
Brown, Sanderson's, Capital and a number of self-hardening 
brands. In the following we give descriptions for the working 
of the different brands of which we have been able to obtain 
data. For all high-grade steels the directions will prove satis- 
factory. Figs. I and 2 show sections of shapes and sizes of file 
steel. 

Heating for Forging. 

For Jessop's steels heating for forging is, in its way, quite 
as important as heating for hardening; care and uniformity in 
the application of the heat in the first instance is very essential. 
Should the steel be overheated in this process no amount of care 
afterward will restore the steel to its former state or remedy the 
evil ; therefore, when forging, watch the blast and see that the thin 
edges or exposed parts do not heat too fast. 

In tools carrying a cutting edge, finishing cold and hammer- 
ing hard is beneficial, such as forgings for cutting dies, for in- 
stance. 

Heating for Hardening. 

Then comes the vital process of hardening, and no fixed gen- 
eral rules will answer, as skill and experience are the only reliable 
standbys. However, a few points will help in the attainment of 
satisfactory results. Heat slowly and evenly in a charcoal or a 
coal fire or in a gas muffle. Most mistakes and accidents are due 
to the steel not being heated to the same temperature throughout ; 
particularly is this so in large articles such as dies. 

If possible, dip on a rising heat, that is, do not take a tool from 
the fire and wait until it becomes air cool ; see that vou get it the 



STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 



19 




20 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

required heat and dip at once, always remembering that the lowest 
heat at which steel will harden satisfactorily gives the best 
results in hardness and toughness, conditions which must go to- 
gether to insure satisfaction ; therefore do not exceed a low red in 
heating. 

Plain water, if clear and cold, will generally allow of harden- 
ing sufficiently ; if not, brine should be used. There are also a 
number of chemical compounds, receipts for which are given in 
another chapter of this book, which give excellent results ; a prac- 
tical experiment is, however, the safest to go by in adopting them 
for hardening tools for different uses. 

To harden small, intricate and thin tools, which must not 
twist or warp excessively during the process, an oil bath will be 
found the best to quench in. 

Do not expose heated steel to a current of air, especially in 
winter, and in intricate dies or milling cutters it is safer to allow 
them to cool thoroughly before removing them from the quench- 
ing solution. In quenching, a strong jet of water will help to 
attain good results when hardening large dies, etc. 

If you think that a little soap or oil has got into your water 
bath, a handful of lime will clean it. The best way to do in a case 
of this kind is to simply empty the tank and refill it with perfectly 
clear water. 

In hardening milling cutters or similar tools, in which there 
is likely to be a great strain placed upon the tooth at its exposed 
edges, it is best to take the chill out of the water by plunging a 
red hot piece of cast iron into it. In some cases it is necessary 
to protect exposed portions of such tools with clay and thus lessen 
unequal contraction and strain. 

Never attempt to harden tool steel without having first re- 
moved the outer scale or skin ; this applies especially to annealed 
steel. Also always remember that overheated steel will usually 
crack when plunged into cold water. At all events it will be 
useless unless restored. 

Treatment of Jessop's High-Speed, Self-Hardening Steel. 

Heat the steel uniformly and with moderate care, forge to 
sliape at bright red and do not hammer cold. Having forged to 
shape, the best results in hardening may be obtained by allowing 
the tool to cool before the process. 

To harden : Heat the nose of the tool to almost a white heat ; 



STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. 21 

do not be afraid of burning it, but when white hot remove and 
aliow to cool away from the hearth. From the high temperature 
a thick scale will result, which should be thoroughly removed by 
grinding on a wet stone. A dry emery stone is usually more or 
less detrimental to any steel. 

After using a tool made from this steel for some time, and 
regrinding five or six times to keep up its cutting qualities to the 
fullest extent, it is found advisable to re-harden as described 
above, doing this without re-dressing the tool unless the shape 
requires alteration. 

Annealed Tool and Die Steel. 
Every mechanic appreciates the advantages to be gained in 
using annealed tool and die steel, as it obviates the necessity of 
annealing before roughing, economizes time and overcomes all 
risks of overheating or burning during the process of annealing. 
After roughing it may be heated to a low heat and left to cool 
and then finished, when the results in hardening and tempering 
will give perfect satisfaction. 

Treatment of Annealed Tool and Die Steel. 

In hardening tools made from ready annealed steel, heat slowly 
and uniformly to a low red and use as little blast as possible. 
This is especially needful in large die steel. 

In forging, above all things avoid overheating and a strong 
blast. Apply the heat uniformly, turning over the article in the 
fire so as to give the heat a chance to reach the center. Have the 
fire of sufficient size to allow of heating the article all over and see 
that it is free from sulphur or other impurities. Never try to heat 
a large block of steel in a small fire. 

Treatment of "Capital" High-Grade Steel. 
In working "Capital" steel it must be heated slowly and forged 
to shape at a heat suitable for ordinary cast steel. It must be 
heated gradually to a white welding heat and cannot be spoiled 
by overheating if it is removed from the fire on the first indica- 
tion of its reaching a melting point. It must be placed instantly 
into a cold-air blast produced by a blower or compressed air. If 
the nose is to be used the tool should be held on a direct line with 
the blast, but not too close ; as soon as the steel stops sparking 
turn on the full blast of air-pressure and hold the steel within 
about two inches of the nozzle until quite cold. 



22 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



After the air-hardening process the tool must be thoroughly 
ground, as the high heat forms a thick scale which must be re- 
moved entirely in order for the tool to stand. 

In hardening it is also advisable to have the cold air blast as 



I^IG. 4. — SET OP HARDENED AND TEMPERED TURNING TOOLS 
FOR PRECISION LATHE. 



STEEL^ ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 23 

near as possible to the heating arrangement, so that the tool can 
be transferred immediately from the fire to the blast. On no 
account let the point of the tool shift from the direct air current 
until the tool is cold. If the article is laid down while hardening 
it must be fastened securely so that the air blast will not shift it. 

The Best Steel for Tools. 

The question that has been asked more often than any other 
of steel experts, by men responsible for results in metal working, 
is : ."What make of steel is the best for general tool work?" This 
question has never been answered satisfactorily and it never will, 
as no two men handle and work a piece of steel alike, and until 
mechanics follow instructions given for the working of the dif- 
ferent brands they must find out through experience the best make 
of steel for their special purposes. Any of the leading brands of 
high-grade steel will prove satisfactory for general tool work if 
heated perfectly, and in these two last words lies the attainment 
of good results. 

In order for the mechanic to work steel properly he must 
know the different brands and adopt them for purposes which ex- 
perience has taught him they are the best suited. Get the gen- 
eral knowledge of the nature and peculiarities of the different 
brands of steel and decide for yourself the purposes for which 
they are best suited. When you obtain a brand that works well 
when used generally stick to it. 

Testing Too! Steel. 
When a number of tools are to be made from the same bar of 
steel, unless a piece of this particular bar has been used before 
and given satisfaction, it is well to test it, especially when ex- 
pensive tools are to be made from it. A good way to do this is 
to cut off a thin disk from one end and harden it at a low red 
heat. After the piece has cooled, dry it and crack it through the 
center. Thus any defect which may run through the center of 
the bar will become apparent. If there are any defects, return 
the bar to the manufacturer. 

The Grain of Steel. 
If the steel proves sound the grain should be examined. In 
doing this do not wet the fracture, as this would discolor the steel 
and prevent examination. If the steel is good the grain will ap- 
pear fine and close ; if bad, a coarse appearance will be presented, 



24 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

similar to broken cast iron. A coarse grain steel should never 
be used for tools which will be subjected to much strain, such as 
milling cutters, for instance. For hardness, test the center of the 
fracture with a sharp, smooth file. If great hardness is required, 
break a piece so as to leave a sharp point ; if the point cuts glass, 
the steel will harden satisfactorily throughout. 

Testing Steel for Toughness. 
A great many steels will show a fine grain and will be of 
sufficiently high carbon percentage to allow of hardening satis- 
factorily, but will not prove tough enough for general usage. In 
making expensive tools this quality should be determined before 
proceeding with the machining. Harden a disk and place it upon 
an anvil and strike the center a heavy blow with a hammer. If 
it breaks instantly it is too brittle and is not tough enough, but if, 
on the contrary, several blows are required to break it and at the 
last blow the disk flattens a bit, it is fine steel and may be used 
without fear of subsequent failure in hardening. 

Economy in Testing Steel Before Using. 
While these testing methods are rather costly in the beginning, 
and in a great many cases can be dispensed with, their adoption 
when making a number of costly tools will often prevent expensive 
mistakes. Where a large amount of tool steel is used, some one 
should be assigned to the task, and when a lot of steel comes in 
he should cut a disk off each bar in the power hack saw, mark 
each disk and its bar, and after a sufficient number of disks are 
at hand he should test them. Thus at a moderate cost the cer- 
tainty of the steel being satisfactory for required uses will be 
determined, a large number of costly accidents possibly averted, 
and a vast amount of time saved through the obviation of indi- 
vidual testing by the tool-makers. 

Decarbonised Steel Surfaces. 
A fact which few tool-makers seem to realize, and one which 
if generally known would save much trouble, is that the surfaces 
of all steels as they come from the manufacturer are decarbonized 
and, of course, will not harden. This condition cannot be over- 
come in the present manufacture of steel, as the action of the 
oxvgen in the air affects the steel in such a manner, as it is put 
through the various operations required in its production, as to 
burn out the carbon in the surfaces. For this reason do not 



STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 



25 



select a piece of steel which will just "skin" up, but take a piece 
large enough to require taking a good-sized cut off before reach- 
ing the finishing surface. 

Hoiv to Knoiv Tool Steel from Mild Steel. 

In a great many shops very little attention is given to the 
steel corner, rack, or box ; the floor is the most popular place for 
steel storage in a number of shops. Very often machinery steels 
and tool steels are piled together in one heap, and when the ma- 
chinist goes to secure a piece he has to wonder "which is which." 
There are any number of means for finding this out, but we give 
here a very quick way. To test a piece of steel, touch the end 
lightly against a dry emery wheel and watch the sparks as they 
strike. A tool steel gives forth a spark which seems to burst 
into a bright point of light when it strikes against the frame of 
the grinder, while a spark from machinery steel is merely a dull 
red incandescent particle. All air-hardening steels give forth 
bright red sparks. 

Tool Holder and Tools. 

The engraving. Fig. 5, shows a simple home made tool holder 
for lathe or planer, while Fig. 6 shows a set of tools to be used 




FIG, 5. — A lathe; tool holder. 



26 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



^ 



Broad 

Nose 



<EL 



Break 
k Corners 



y> 



Rougli out 

Slots 



77 



\ Rounding 
^ Corners 



Flat Bottom 
Threads 



\ \ Turning Steel 



D 





i> 



Brass 
\\M\ Turning 



Parting 
Tools 



I> 



Tool for Shaper 



PIG. 6.— SET OF SELF-HARDENING STEEL-CUTTING TOOLS. 



STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION 2^ 

with it. Neither will require a description. A set of these tools 
and a holder of the construction shown will be found handy 
things for a tool-maker to have in his drawer. 

Self -Hardening Steel Cutting Tools. 

A great many machinists complain about self-hardening steel 
cutting tools, and say that it is impossible to accomplish fine re- 
sults in turning or planed work with them, and for that reason 
a great many will not use them. Now, when they say that for 
fine work they are useless, they are right, as it is impossible to 
get the edges of such tools to keep a keen edge for any length 
of time so as to allow of taking smooth finishing cuts. But for 
medium cuts and feeds and coarse thread cutting, machining 
cast iron in the shaper, planer or lathe, for turning brass castings 
and also for accomplishing different operations on cast iron parts 
in the turret lathe, they are unequaled and should always be used 
where the production of machine parts at the minimum of cost 
and labor is imperative. For the face-milling of large castings, 
where inserted tooth cutters are adaptable, the self-hardening 
steel tools will be found to give the best results. There are sev- 
eral brands of self-hardening steel on the market in any one of 
which it will be found possible to hold an edge sufficiently keen to 
allow of its being used for the purposes herein enumerated. 

Speeds of Cutting Tools. 

To secure the best results from steel used for cutting purposes 
attention must be given to the use of calculations in or for de- 
termining the proper speed for the work or tool, according to 
conditions. As a rule the average machinist does not in ordinary 
practice make use of these rules, but instead depends on the 
knowledge acquired through experience and observation. For 
the benefit of those who are not familiar with rules for finding 
cutting speeds, and to obviate the necessity of guessing at the 
proper speed, we give approximate cutting speed at which tools 
or work should be run in the machining of different metals. 
Figs. 7 to 24 illustrate tool holders and tools and the manner in 
which they should be used. 

Cutting speed for cast iron, 14 to 16 circumference or longi- 
tudinal feet per minute. 

Cutting speed for malleable iron, 16 to 20 circumference or 
longitudinal feet' per minute. 



28 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




FIG. 7 — RIGHT AND LEFT SIDE 
TOOLS, TURNING. 



FIG, b. — RIGHT AND LEFT SIDE 
TOOLS, PLANING. 




^''!iE'„' ' 



31 



FIG. 9. — PLANER TOOL. 



FIG. 10. — MANNER IN WHICH PLAN:SR^ 
TOOL IS USED. 





x^ 






FIG. 12. — CUTTING-OFF TOOL. 




!*«fr«^1«*W|* 



^ 



PIG. 13. — OFFSET CUTTING-OFF TOOL. 



PIG. 14. — ^TURNING TOOL FOR LATHE. 




FIG. 16. — BORING TOOL. 




FIG. 15. — SHAPER TOOL. 



FIG. 17. — BORING TOOL. 



STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. 



29 




FIG. 20.— CUTTING INSIDK 
THREAD. 



FIG. 23. — PARTS OF "HOGGING 
TOOL. 




FIG. 21. — THREAD TOOL. 



FIG. 24. — "HOGGING " CUT. 



30 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Cutting speed for steel, 12 to 15 circumference or longitudinal 
feet per minute. 

Cutting speed for brass, 28 to 40 circumference or longitudinal 
feet per minute. 

The circumstances and conditions upon which slight variations 
of the speeds given above depend are numerous, among which 
are : Whether a roughing or finishing, coarse or fine cut is being 
taken ; the form and shape of the cutting tools ; the toughness and 
density of the metals worked upon, and the surface feet machined 
without regrinding the tool. There is a great deal of work done 
in the lathe or in the planer which requires tools which project 
far out of their holders. For such work the cutting speeds must 
be considerably less than here given. Then, very often, the tex- 
ture of the metal is tough and hard, necessitating slower speeds 
and fine feeds in machining. For these reasons, it is a difficult 
matter to lay down any exact rules for the accurate calculating of 
cutting speeds ; so we give approximate speeds and leave their 
variation to the machinist to determine according to the various 
conditions. 

Cutting and Durability Qualities of Steel. 

The capacity of steel to cut lies principally in its temper, 
while the durability of the cutting edges depends upon its quality 
and adaptability to the kind of work for the machining or cutting 
of which it is used. Thus to secure the best results in cutting 
tools, steel of the best quality must be used. The cost of good 
steel for tools should not be considered of much importance as 
compared with its efi^ciency, because the cost is insignificant w^hen 
compared with the results possible to attain by its use. Take, 
for instance, a large milling cutter, or gang of small milling cut- 
ters, made from good steel and weighing a few pounds, will ma- 
chine many tons of metal without requiring grinding if subjected 
to the proper hardening and tempering processes. The time re- 
quired to machine a given surface depends very much upon the 
quality of the steel of which this tool or tools is or are made, and 
will vary thirty or forty per cent from a very slight dift'erence in 
quality. 

With a steel of a given quality the efficiency of the tools made 
from it depends most upon the knowledge and skill employed in 
the forging, annealing, hardening and tempering, and also upon 
the shape of the cutting edges. So in considering the dift"erent 



STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. 3 1 

qualities of work performed by tools made from the same grade 
or brand of steel, we must first know of the amount of skill em- 
ployed in the performance of the heating operations. 

Judgment, Experience and Perception in the Working of Steel. 

To a great many mechanics any steel which will harden is con- 
sidered good steel. To harden, however, is a very simple matter, 
but to harden when heated to a definite degree requires skill, 
and to harden a piece of steel so that it will possess a definite de- 
gree of elasticity when tempered to a particular point of tempera- 
ture after hardening requires skill and knowledge both. Thus 
if all steel which will harden is good steel, and as there is an 
absence of uniformity in the grades of steel in general use, the 
operator must rely on judgment, experience and perception to 
attain satisfactory results. 

Even when the steel operated upon is of a uniform grade, the 
heating processes will not always bring forth uniform results, 
because steel decarbonizes somewhat by being heated, and thus 
a small piece or tool deteriorates by being heated in the open 
fire, and one often heated to repair or sharpen suffers in propor- 
tion. From all this it will be understood that hardening and 
tempering processes of steel must differ according to the size 
and nature of the work, the amount of uniformity required, and 
the results which the tools are required to accomplish. From 
all these considerations we are forced to conclude that the in- 
formation of value to practical men and the only way to instruct 
them in the art of steel treatment is by presenting the practice of 
the best shops and tool-makers and giving the processes and con- 
ditions in connection with each other. 

The First Effects of Heat. 

Norton, in his "Elements of Natural Philosophy," says : 
"The first effect of heat on any body, solid, liquid or aeriform, 
is to expand it. 

"The expansion of gases may be readily shown by an air 
thermometer. This consists simply of a bulb of glass, with a 
long narrow stem, dipping into colored water. If the bulb be 
warmed by the hand, the air within will so expand that a portion 
will be expelled and rise in bubbles through the liquid. On cool- 
ing, the portion of air remaining will contract to its former 
volume, and the water will t^ke the place of the air expelled. 



32 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

"The experiment may then be continued indefinitely. The 
•expansion and contraction may be measured by the scale attached 
to the stem ; it will be found that all expand equally and regularly 
for successive increments of heat. 

Unequal Expansion. 

"The unequal expansion of different metals is well shown by 
a compound bar, made by riveting together two bars of iron and 
brass, at different points along their whole length. . . . 

"If the bar is straight at ordinary temperature, it will so bend 
when hot water is poured on it that the brass will be on the con- 
vex side of the curve, and bend in the opposite direction when 
cold water is poured on it. The brass expands and contracts 
more than the iron, and the bar curves to accommodate the in- 
equality of the length which results. This principle has been 
applied to the construction of metallic thermometers. 

Heat Effects on Clay. 

"Clay does not expand by heat, but contracts permanently, by 
reason of chemical changes in its particles. In the experiments 
detailed, the bodies will be found to contract on cooling and as- 
sume their original volume as soon as they attain their former 
temperature. Certain metals, as lead and zinc, are exceptions 
to this law of cooling, the contraction being at each time a little 
less than the expansion. 

"From this experiment it is evident ( i ) that the volume of all 
b)odies is increased by heat; (2) that this increased volume is due 
to motion among the molecules of the bodies, which tends con- 
tinually to separate them; (3) that the intensity of the heat may 
ht measured by the degree of the molecular motion. From these 
and other considerations it is assumed that heait is that mode of 
molecular motion zvhich may he measured by the expansion of 
bodies. 

"By this definition it is understood, (i) that the molecules of 
every body are in continual motion; (2) that when this motion 
increases in intensity the body becomes warmer; (3) that when 
this motion decreases in intensity the body becomes cooler. An 
older theory, which regarded heat as imponderable matter, has 
been generally discarded, while some of its terms have been re- 
tained ; hence it must be understood that when heat is described as 
passing from one body to another, it means that the molecular 



STEEL, ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. 33 

motion of one body is communicated to the molecules of another, 
and not that any material agent has passed between them. 

The Ainoiint of Force Exerted in Expansion or Contraction. 

"The amount of force exerted in expansion and contraction 
is enormous, for it is equal to that which would be required to 
stretch or compress the material to the same extent by me- 
•chanical means. 

"Water, at the temperature 128 deg. Fahrenheit is compressed 
^000044 of its volume by the pressure of one atmosphere. On 
being heated from 32 deg. Fahrenheit to 212 deg. Fahrenheit it 
-expands .0466 of its volume. Therefore, to restore boiling water 
to its bulk at freezing would require a pressure of over one thou- 
;sand atmospheres. The expansive force of water for each de- 
gree Fahrenheit is nearly ninety pounds per square inch. Hence, 
if a closed vessel be completely filled with cold water, it must 
;speedily burst when heat is applied. 

"A bar of wrought iron expands, for each degree Fahrenheit, 
with a force of nearly two hundred pounds to the square inch. 
This force had a curious application in the Museum of Arts and 
Trades in Paris. The walls of an arched gallery had bulged 
-outward by the weight of the arch. Iron bars were placed across 
the building and screwed into plates on the outside. The alternate 
iDars were then heated, and as soon as they had expanded the plates 
v/ere screwed up tightly to the walls. As the bars cooled and 
contracted, they drew the walls closer together. The operation 
was repeated until the walls had attained the vertical position. 

"On the same principle tires are fastened on wheels. The 
tire, made a little smaller than the wheel, is heated red hot, and 
while expanded is placed in position. On cooling, it not only 
.secures itself on the rim, but holds all the other parts of the wheel 
in position. 

"It is often necessary to take into account the changes of 
length produced by heat. In railways a small interval must be 
left 'between the ends of the iron rails. Iron bars built into 
necessary lengths should be left free at one end. 

"Brittle substances, as glass and cast iron, often crack on being 
heated suddenly, because the outside is heated sooner than the 
inside, and thereby causes an unequal expansion. A sudden 
cooling, by inducing unequal contraction, has the same efifect. 
The thicker the plate the greater the liability to fracture. 



34 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

The Second Effect of Heat. 

"The second effect of heat on a sohd is to change its molecular 
condition to melt it. Some solids, as paper, wood and wool, do 
not melt, but are decomposed. The temperature at which solids 
melt differs for different substances, but is invariable for the same 
substance, if the pressure is constant. This temperature is called 
the melting point. 

Table of Expansion from 32 deg. F. to 212 deg. F. 

Linear. Cubical. 
Solids. I I 

Flint glass 1/1248 1/416 

Platinum 1/1131 i/377 - 

Steel 1/926 1/309 ^^ 

Iron 1/846 1/282 

Brass 1/536 i/i79 

Silver 1/524 1/175 

Zinc 1/340 1/113 

Tin 1/516 1/172 

Fluids. 

Mercury 1/55 

Water 1/21 . 3 

The fixed oils 1/12 . 5 

Alcohol 1/9 

Air and permanent gases 180/491" 

Kinds of Steel Produced in America by the Crucible and Open 
Hearth Processes. 

Steel is produced in America by the crucible and open-hearth 
processes in bars, rods, sheets, plates, wire, forgings and rolled 
shapes. 

The different kinds of steel produced by these methods com- 
prise : Fine tool and die steel, self -hardening steel, ax and hatchet 
steel, cvitlery steel, surgical and fine knife steel, composite die steel, 
oil well and artesian bit steel, mining drill steel, annealed die- 
blocks and cutter blanks, tool steel forgings, circular and long 
saw plates, boiler and fire box plates, hot-rolled and cold-rolled 
strip steel, polished high-grade drill rods and wire, needle wire, 
resistance wire rods, music wire rods, nickel steel rods ; wire of 
every grade, shape and size, bright, annealed and tempered ; cru- 



STEEL^ ITS SELECTION AND IDENTIFICATION. 35 

cible steel rods, clock and watc!i spring steel, pen steel, magnet 
steel, heavy gun forgings and projectiles, gun barrel steel, spring 
steel, machinery steel, merchant bar steel, machinery steel forg- 
ings, cold-drawn screw steel, hammer and sledge steel, welding 
steel, soft center and soft back plow steel, agricultural steel of all 
descriptions, sleigh shoe and toe-calk steel, wedge steel, laminated 
safe steel, skate steel, etc. 

One of the largest producers of steel in the world, by the cru- 
cible and open-hearth processes, is the Crucible Steel Company 
of America, Pittsburg, Penn. This company's products include 
all of the steels above enumerated as well as many others too 
numerous to mention. 



CHAPTER II. 

ANNEALING PROCESSES THE TERMS ANNEALING, HARDENING AND 

TEMPERING DEFINED THE ANNEALING OF MALLEABLE CAST- 
INGS. 

The Terms Defined. 

Annealing, hardening and tempering, are three terms used to 
distinguish the different processes through which tool steel and 
various other metals are required to pass in order to allow of their 
heing used for the various purposes required in the atts. In 
■order that the mechanic may be able to adopt these processes to 
the best advantage in the making of tools for different kinds of 
work, he must learn that annealing means something more than 
heating a piece of steel red hot and allowing it to cool ; hardening 
more than heating red hot and plunging into water, and, that 
tempering, something more than coloring a piece of steel. In fact 
he must realize that the annealing, hardening and tempering of 
steel is an art in itself, and that in order to become skilled in it, 
constant vigilance, experience and study are necessary, from "the 
ground up." 

Metals are. annealed by slowly cooling them from a high tem- 
perature. Annealing generally increases the flexibility, softness, 
and ductility of bodies, and in this manner metals that have be- 
come brittle through excess of strain in rolling, drawing, twisting, 
hammering, forging or other mechanical means, may have their 
properties restored by annealing. 

Steel and a number of other metals, if cooled suddenly after 
having been heated to a high temperature, become more brittle and 
m.ore elastic than before. For instance, if a piece of tool steel is 
heated to a white heat and then plunged into a bath of ice-water 
or mercury, it will become almost as hard as a diamond, and will 
be very elastic and so brittle that it can only be used for drilling 
tempered steel or chilled iron, or for coining and engraving dies 
and files of the hardest kinds. 

When steel is in its softened condition it may be worked into 
any shape required in the arts. To harden steel after it has been 
worked, it is strongly heated and suddenlv cooled, and as it is 
rendered too brittle by this hardening process (for ordinary pur- 



ANNEALING PROCESSES. 37 

poses, at least), something of its elasticity must be sacrificed and a 
portion of its hardness removed by reheating the steel to a lower 
temperature and allowing it to cool slowly. This process is called 
"drawing" or "tempering." The temper to which a piece of steel 
should be drawn depends upon the use to which it is to be put, 
and is regulated by varying the temperature of the second heat- 
ing, the higher the degree of heat the softer the steel. 

When a steel tool or article has been hardened, then polished 
or ground and reheated, the film of oxide on its surface becomes, 
at a temperature of 420 deg. F., of a light straw color, then 
through intermediate hues to a violet yellow at 509 deg. F., blue 
at 550 deg. F., while at 725 deg. F. the steel passes to a red heat. 
These colors guide the workman in his efforts to temper the 
tools as required. Light yellow is the temper required for all 
articles or tools requiring a keen edge ; a deeper yellow for fine 
cutlery, while violet is the temper for table knives requiring flexi- 
bility more than a hard brittle edge, and blue for all articles or 
tools which are required to be very flexible. 

How to Thoroughly Anneal High-Carbon Tool Steel Parts. 

Very often a large number of accurate small tools are to be 
made from high-carbon steel, and as they are required to be 
hardened perfectly so as to not warp, bulge, crack or shrink ex- 
cessively, they must be perfectly annealed before finishing. 

The most satisfactory rnethod for annealing high grade tool 
steel parts is to pack in granulated charcoal in an iron box, ar- 
ranging the parts so that they will not come higher than within 
one inch of the top of the box, and cover with well packed char- 
coal. Then place the box in the furnace or forge and heat to a 
bright red, at which it should be held for some time, depending 
upon the size of the parts to be annealed. For instance, parts 
not over one inch in diameter or thick, if kept at a red heat for 
an hour, after a through heat, will be found to have annealed as 
desired ; large pieces must be kept hot for a period correspond- 
ing to their size and shape. After the heat, allow the box to 
cool off slowly and do not remove the parts until perfectly 
cool. 

The Proper Heat for Annealing. 

It Has been found through experience that the proper Keat 
for annealing is almost a forging heat. Keep at a bright red 
long enough to overcome all strains which may have a tendency 



38 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

to manifest themselves during the hardening process. It is not 
well to use cast iron chips or turnings for packing, as they will 
decarbonize the steel to such an extent as to prevent successful 
hardening afterward. Packing parts too near to the walls of 
the annealing box will have almost the same effect as the chips; 
in fact, it will be worse, as the decarbonizing effect will be unequal 
and the surfaces nearest the box sides will be affected, thus mak- 
ing whatever hardening possible unequal. 

Annealing in the Charcoal Firei — 

A great many shops have not the facilities to allow of using 
the above described annealing process, and in such very satisfac- 
tory results may be attained by heating the steel in a good char- 
coal fire to about an even forging heat. After heating, put a 
few inches of the fire ash in a box, and on top of the ash place 
a soft pine board, then place the heated work on top and cover 
the box. The wood will char and smolder and the steel will re- 
main hot for a considerable period. Often a box of cold ashes 
may be used to accomplish the same results to a less extent, as the 
cold ashes or lime — either one acts the same — are apt to chill the 
hot steel. However, when either of the three materials are used 
hot, good results will be obtained. 

Good Steel for Good Tools. 

One of the points that a great many mechanics seem to forget 
is the necessity of having good steel in order to do good tool- 
making. Often upon asking a toolmaker, who was engaged in 
making a tool or die, what brand of steel he was using, the 
writer has been met with the answer : "I don't know." Make it 
your business to discover the best brands for different purposes 
and then stick to them. A steel that is good steel will show, when 
hardened and broken, a white fracture free from coarse spots. 
Get a steel of a carbon percentage that will allow of its being an- 
nealed and hardened at a low red heat, as steel which requires 
a very high heat to anneal and harden, will, nine times out of ten, 
prove utterly unsatisfactory, and tools made from it will crack, 
chip or spring when in use. 

Annealing. 

Although it does not seem to be generally known, the suc- 
cessful hardening of a piece of steel depends greatly on the an- 



ANNEALING PROCESSES. 39 

tiealing of it previous to machining it, and in order to harden 
properly it is necessary that the correct processes of anneaUng 
should be understood. Always anneal any odd-shaped piece, or 
one with an irregular-shaped hole in it, after having roughed it 
down. The best way to anneal such pieces is to pack them in 
charcoal in an iron box, being sure to have as much charcoal at the 
sides of the box as at the bottom, in order that the heat shall not 
penetrate too quickly. The box should be kept at a red heat for 
an hour, and then left in the ashes over night to cool. The proper 
heat for such pieces in annealing should always be higher than the 
heat required to harden the same piece. Experience has taught 
us that a heat almost as high as a forging heat will be the means 
of overcoming any undue tension or strain which may become ap- 
parent when the piece is hardened. 

An Annealing Box for Small Parts. 

A good way to make an annealing box for small parts is to take 
a piece of, say, 3-inch iron pipe about 10 inches long. Tap both 
ends of the pipe and fit plugs to them ; cast iron will do. One of 
the ends may then be closed and the charcoal and parts to be an- 
nealed packed in, after which the other plug can be screwed in. 
With a box of this kind no sealing is necessary, as the screw plugs 
prevent the entrance of the air. 

Water Annealing. 

Very often a piece of steel is required for a repair job or some 
other job in a hurry, and there is no time to anneal it in the regu- 
lar way. At other times a piece which has been hardened re- 
quires to be machined. When confronted with the above condi- 
tions, a tool-maker can fall back on the "water annealing" and 
after he has tried it a few times he will be delighted with the re- 
sults. There are several methods of doing this, and we give here 
the best of them all : The mechanic may adopt any of them, accord- 
ing to the results secured from each. The first method is to heat 
the steel slowly to a dull cherry red ; then remove it from the fire 
and with a soft piece of wood try the heat, as it decreases, by 
touching the steel with the end of the stick. When the piece has 
cooled so that the wood ceases to char, plunge the steel quickly 
into an oil and water bath. On machining the steel it will be 
found to be very soft. 

The second method for water annealing is to heat the steel 



40 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

slowly to a red heat, then allow it to lie in the ashes a few min- 
utes until almost black, then drop it into soapsuds and allow it 
to cool. 

Very often a piece of steel annealed in this manner will turn 
out much softer than if annealed in the regular manner by packing 
ill powdered charcoal and allowing it to cool over night. A good 
way to make sure as to the time to drop the steel into the bath,, 
is to allow it to cool until almost black, then touch it with a file^ 
if the steel does not brighten for an instant and then turn blue, 
wait a few seconds and repeat the experiment. If, upon the 
second trial, the blue appears and then a spark right afterward, 
drop the steel instantly into the bath, and when cool it will be 
found to be as "soft as butter." 

Sometimes a piece of steel which is to be used as a punch or 
die blank, upon starting to machine it, proves hard, although it 
has been annealed. When this is the case, never try to finish it 
before reannealing it ; instead, rough it down, clean out the cen- 
ters and anneal it over again. The time required to reanneal a 
piece of steel will be more than made up in the machining of it. 

The Effects of the Water Anneal. 

Although it may seem strange to some, it is a fact that results 
possible to attain in steel which has been water annealed cannot 
be obtained by any other methods. Water annealing seems to- 
give a certain texture to the grain of the steel, which is not ex- 
actly softness, but is different from that obtained by charcoal ash 
annealing. When a piece of steel has been properly water annealed 
and is turned in the lathe using a lubricant, it will present a 
strange dead-white appearance and the turnings will be short 
and come off like little bristles. 

In steel annealed in the usual manner the turnings will gen- 
erally come off in long close-curled lengths, and the surface 
of the work will present a more or less torn texture, even when 
the tool used is very keen. This tearing is caused by the steel 
being so soft as to give way and crowd up into little lumps just 
slightly ahead of the cutting edges of the tool. Thus in cutting 
screw threads in ordinary annealed steel it is almost impossible to 
get a smooth, clean thread. 

The water annealing, however, seems to overcome this un- 
pleasant feature, in that it seems to give the requisite stiffness 
of texture to prevent this tearing. Considering the results, the 



ANNEALING PROCESSES. 41 

water anneal will contribute to the best results being attained in. 
a large variety of lathe work. 

We are unable to state just what chemical or molecular action 
the water anneal has on steel. It is not a softening action, as 
compared with the effects of ordinary annealing, but instead a 
sti-ffness and tightness of the particles which allows the cutting 
edge of the tool to creep beneath the shell and peel it off. 

The Annealing of Tap Steel. 

Most of the large establishments in which taps, reamers, etc.,. 
are manufactured have most of their steel annealed at the places 
where it is made. This has been done for some years with the 
possible exception of the steel from which long stay-bolt taps 
are made, they having been found to require more care in anneal- 
ing than the steel manufacturers give them. 

During an interview a few years ago, Mr. F. A. Pratt, of the 
famous American firm of Pratt & Whitney, spoke as follows in 
regard to the working of tap steel : 

"We have most of our tap steel annealed at the place where 
it is made. We have had it done in this way for some years, with 
the exception of our long stay-bolt taps, which we have found 
to require more care in annealing than the steelmakers give them. 

"More steel is injured, and sometimes spoiled, by over-anneal- 
ing than in any other way. Steel heated too hot in annealing will 
shrink badly when being hardened ; besides, it takes the life out 
of it. It should never be heated above a low cherry red, and it 
should be a slower heat than it is when being hardened. It should 
be heated slowly and given a uniform heat all over and through 
the piece. 

"This is difficult to do in long bars and in an ordinary furnace. 
The best way to heat a piece of steel, either for annealing or 
hardening, is in red hot, pure lead. By this method it is done 
uniformly and one can see the color all the time. We do some 
heating for annealing in this way, and simply cover up the piece 
in saw-dust, and let it cool there, and we get good results. All 
steelmakers know the injurious effects of over-heating steel and of 
over-annealing, but their customers are continually calling for 
softer steel and more thorough annealing. Until users are edu- 
cated up to the idea of less annealing and to working harder steel, 
both will suffer, for the user will continually complain of poor 
steel. 



42 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

"Several years since we caught on to the fact that steel was 
injured by over-annealing, and that good screw threads could not 
be cut in steel that was too soft ; our men would rather take the 
steel bar direct from the rolls without any annealing than take the 
risk of annealing. At present we get it from the makers in passa- 
ble condition, but not as it should be, and unless the steelmakers 
find some way to heat the bars to a^niform heat, and at a low 
cherry red, we must either use it raw from the bar or anneal 
it ourselves. We find, also, that this soft annealing makes a much 
greater shrinkage and spoils the lead of the thread, and that from 
the bar without any annealing there is very little trouble in this 
respect. 

"When O. H. and Bessemer machine steel was first introduced 
it was poorly made and hard to work. Users constantly urged 
the makers to make it softer, until when a maker could say his 
steel was as soft as iron, and not more than o.io to 0.15 of i per 
cent, carbon, he had the market. This company found out early 
that this soft machine steel was almost worthless. A shaft would 
bend easily in working, and if a lead screw was to cut it was not 
possible to get a smooth thread and a good finish. 

"Now we either make shafts and spindles of cast steel of a 
high carbon or of machine steel of about 50 per cent carbon, with- 
out annealing. Our men kicked at first, but now they complain 
if it is soft, because they cannot cut a good thread and cannot keep 
it as true." 

Re-Annealing Tap Blanks. 

Often, from improper annealing, a tap blank proves too hard 
for thread cutting, this coming about in the annealing processes, 
from not heating properly or not knowing the nature of the steel. 
When this is the case always re-anneal the blank, and the loss 
of temper and wearing out of good tools in trying to cut a thread 
on too hard stock will be obviated. Before re-annealing take a 
rough cut-off and clean out the centers. 

Hozv to Heat for Annealing. 

When annealing steel, heat very slowly to a red — never heat 
it hot enough to raise scale — and allow lots of time for cooling. 
A piece of steel heated hot enough to scale will never work well 
unless re-annealed by some method which will restore it from its 
almost burnt state. 



ANNEALING PROCESSES. 43 

Annealing a Small Quantity of Steel. 
When only a small quantity of steel is required heat to a 
cherry red in a charcoal fire and pack in sawdust in an iron box. 
Keep the steel in the pack until cold. For a large quantity, which 
is required to be very soft, pack with granulated charcoal in an 
iron box as follows : Having at least % or ^ inch in depth of 
charcoal in the bottom of the box, add a layer of granulated char- 
coal to fill spaces between the steel, and also }4 or % inch space 
between the side of the box and the steel, then more steel, and 
finally i inch in depth of charcoal well packed on top of the steel. 
Heat to a red and hold for from two to three hours and do not 
remove the steel from the box until cold. 

Annealing Steel in the Open Fire. 
Although the annealing of steel can be best accomplished by 
some of the regular packing materials, there are cases, such as an 
emergency job, when this cannot be resorted to, because of the 
time necessitated. When a piece of annealed steel is wanted in a 
hurry, try heating in an open fire and water annealing — heating 
in a charcoal fire to a dull red, then letting the steel cool natur- 
ally in the day light until the red disappears, and then quenching 
in cold water. 

Quick Methods for Softening Steel. 

In the following we give a few methods for the quick anneal- 
ing of steel, gathered from various sources : 

Cover over with tallow, heat to a cherry red in a charcoal fire 
and allow it to cool itself. 

Heat the steel to a low cherry red and allow to cool in a dark 
place until black. Then quench in the juice or water of common 
beans. 

Cover with clay, heat it to a cherry red in a charcoal fire and 
allow to cool slowly. 

To Anneal Doubtful Steel. 
There are some kinds of steel which will not anneal satisfac- 
torily even when packed in air-tight boxes in powdered charcoal. 
To anneal steel of this kind, cover it with fine clay and heat to 
a red heat and allow it to cool over night in the furnace. 

Annealing Chilled Cast-iron Dies for Drilling. 
As drawing and forming dies are often made of chilled cast 



44 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

iron, and as not infrequent!}' holes are required to be drilled in 
them, it is well to know how to soften it to allow of drilling the 
holes. To do this, heat the die to a cherry red and let it lie on 
the coals. Then place a piece of brimstone, circular in shape and 
a little larger in diameter than the hole to be drilled, on the spot 
where the hole is to be. Let the die lie in the fire until it has died 
out and the metal has cooled, and the brimstone will have softened 
the iron entirely through within the radius of its diameter when 
solid. 

Annealing White or Silver Iron. 
To anneal white or silver iron so that it may be drilled or 
chipped, put it into a steel furnace or other converting furnace 
together with a suitable quantity of ironstone, iron ore, some of 
the metallic oxides, lime, or any other combination of these sub- 
stances reduced to a powder, or any other substance capable of 
combining with or absorbing the carbon of the crude iron. The 
more or the longer the heat is applied, the more nearly malleable 
the iron will become. 

The Annealing of Malleable Castings and the Manufacturing of 
Malleable Iron Machine Parts. 
One of the largest establishments in this country devoted to 
the manufacture of malleable iron machine parts, is situated in 
Hoosick Falls, N. Y;, and is controlled by the Walter A. Wood 
Mowing and Reaper Machine Company. A description of their 
plant, methods, etc., will tend to an, intelligent understanding of 
how malleable iron machine parts are produced. 

The Foundry and Preparation of the Castings. 

The malleable department, exclusive of its sheds, has a floor 
space of over 163,000 square feet, the foundry alone measuring 
485 X 125 feet. In this department, in which 350 men are em- 
ployed, of whom 135 are molders, there are three furnaces with a 
capacity of three heats each in a twelve-hour day. The largest 
furnace, almost at the entrance of the foundry, will melt fourteen 
tons of metal at each heat, while the other two in the center of 
the foundry and at the extreme end, respectively, will each melt 
ten tons. 

The castings produced are mostly of small size and are made 
from gated patterns. After they have been removed from the 
molds they are broken from the gates and are sent to the preparing 



ANNEALING PROCESSES. '45 

department, where they are sorted, and all lumps, fins and gate 
joints are removed. The castings as they come from the molds are 
almost as brittle as glass and it is possible to split or break them 
with a light blow of a hammer. It is very interesting to watch 
the men in this operation. They can take a casting, set the 
•edge or lump to be removed on an iron block and break it off 
at the joint with one blow, leaving the portion where the joint 
"was as smooth as the rest of the casting. 

Annealing Furnaces — Packing the Castings. 
After the castings have been sorted and prepared they go to 
another department to be packed into the annealing pots. These 
pots are cast,, and are about 24 inches long, 12 inches deep and 
12 inches wide, and an inch thick. A mixture consisting of 
•common sand, fine steel turnings and steel scale from the rolling 
mills is then wet with sal-ammoniac (which prevents the steel 
turnmgs and scale from adhering to the castings during the an- 
nealing process) and packed around the castings in the annealing 
pots. The pots are now taken to the annealing room. In this 
room there are eight ovens, the walls of which are three feet 
thick and the tops and bottoms four feet thick. To build each of 
these ovens 4,500 red brick and 1,500 white or firebrick were re- 
quired. In each oven there are flues three feet square, running 
the full length of the oven and out into the stack at one end. 
There is also one intermediate flue, and a flue at each side into 
Avhich the crude oil blast is fed. 

Different Methods of Packing Castings in Pots. 
There are various methods for packing castings for annealing. 
The term "packing" is a shop one applied to the class of materials 
which are used for the above purpose, and in addition, supply 
•oxygen or have the latter in their composition. A number of 
different materials are used for the former purpose which are 
used principally on lighter castings. Almost anything that will 
:stand up well while hot is suitable, like ground burned fire brick, 
iron borings, and sand. As they of themselves do not supply 
■oxygen, it is necessary in using them that oxygen be obtained 
by means of a coating of rust or oxide upon the castings either 
bjcfore or after charging the pots. In rusting them before, much 
of the oxide becomes rubbed off in packing. Packing the cast- 
ings wet will do, provided there is some certainty of their being 



46 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

oxidized before heating. Wetting the packing with diluted am- 
nionia is a very sure means, and is the most satisfactory way of 
handhng this material. 

Packing or charging castings in the pots, so that they retain 
their shape and do not scale or warp while hot, is a process that 
cannot be well described. In general, they should be packed 
with a view to keeping the packing in close contact with the 
castings during the settling of the contents of fhe pot. For in- 
stance, flat plates or sections should be packed on edge ; if on the 
side, they will scale on the bottom, from which the packings have 
settled. This explains why some castings scale and others do 
not in the same pot. Castings having projections or unequal 
sides, which can therefore be stacked on top of each other, are 
built up from the bottom plate with a view to balancing the pile. 
All long sections and long castings, unless packed in pots that 
will admit of their being placed horizontal, should be set upon 
the bottom plate vertically. I have seen castings 5 feet long 
become ^ inch longer than the pattern, because they were packed 
some inches above the bottom plate and hung in the pot during 
settling. As a general rule, there is a relation between the amount 
of the packing and the castings, or between the oxygen in the 
packing and the carbon in the castings ; there can therefore be a 
condition where there is not sufficient packing between the cast- 
ings to anneal. There should always be an excess in favor of the 
packing. The packing of the castings is carried upward with a 
view to meeting the unequal heating of the pots — that is, heavy 
castings in the top and light ones in the bottom, separated by 
plates when the occasion requires it. Beginning with the bottom 
plate, the first pot is usually a new one. They do not take the 
heat readily, on account of the sand upon them, and for this 
reason should be broken in on top. Owing to their weight, how- 
ever, it is not practical to use them there. Building or packing 
continues upward, the pots being placed according to their age, 
the top pots passing through the service. 

Annealing, Straightening and Finishing of Malleable Castings. 
Tn the malleable department of the Wood works, in each an- 
nealing oven, pots containing twenty tons of castings are 
packed as close together as possible, after which the vents and 
doors are sealed up and the ovens are heated. It requires twen- 
ty-four hours of steady blast to get the ovens and castings to a 



ANNEALING PROCESSES. 4/ 

white heat. They are then kept at that temperature for five days 
and five nights, after which the blasts are turned off and the 
vents at the tops of the ovens opened. After the vents have been 
open for five hours. the door is pulled down and five hours later the 
nearest pots are removed, and in the course of a few hours the 
others are taken out and allowed to cool. They are then dumped 
and the castings are sorted. All that have cracked or blistered 
or have warped excessively are thrown out. The good castings 
are then sent to the straightening department to be straightened 
and reformed, so as to fit the jigs and fixtures which are used 
for machining those which are required to be machined and to 
m.ake the others interchangeable. The straightening and re- 
forming of the castings are accomplished by dies in powerful 
presses. There are seven different machines, one a hydraulic 
press of seven tons, one five-ton power press, and two powerful 
drop hammers. On shelves surrounding the straightening room 
are hundreds of sets of dies. The dies for the large castings are 
of gray iron, while those for the small parts are of hard iron. 
The dies are cast in the department's own foundry by first getting 
a plaster model of the inside of the master patterns and one of 
the outside and then casting the dies from this model. 

After the straightening and re-forming process, the castings 
are sent to the grinding and finishing department. Here all 
lumps and fins which were not removed before the annealing are 
ground off. The parts to be machined are finished in special 
jigs and fixtures on the drill press, milling machine or lathe, as 
most suitable, and the castings are then ready for the storeroom. 

As every size and style of casting produced in the foundry is 
numbered, and as the numbers run from i to 2,503, some idea may 
be formed of the storage space required. The patterns used are 
of composition metal. They are stored in a fireproof vault, 65 
by 25 feet and 12 feet high. 

Heating the Annealing Ovens. 
To heat the annealing ovens, crude petroleum is used, the oil 
being pumped from three tanks sunk in the ground 300 feet from 
the ovens and 200 feet from the engine-room in which pumps are 
located. One tank holds 13,000 gallons of oil and the other two 
6.000 gallons each. The large tank is located beneath the rail- 
road track and is filled from tank cars, and this in turn fills the 
small ones. The pump used to pump the oil to the annealing 



48 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

ovens runs continually and has not been shut down twelve hours 
in a year. To melt the iron used in the malleable iron foundry 
soft coal is used, the furnaces being so constructed as to allow 
■of the coal being placed in the front part and the metal and other 
materials required to produce hard iron at the back, the heat 
being driven in on the mixture by air pressure. 

General Matter Relative to Malleable Iron Manufacturing. 

Mr. Robert Leith, the superintendent of the department, has 
been with the Wood Company for twenty-five years, and has been 
responsible for the many innovations in his department tending 
to economic production, one of which is to use in his foundry all 
■of the scrap steel produced in the main works. He has used 100 
pounds of the scrap steel to every ton of iron, and has secured the 
very best of results by so doing. Formerly it was necessary to 
sell the scrap steel for almost nothing, in comparison with its 
cost to the firm, but now the malleable department disposes of 
all of it. The output from the malleable department per week 
is usually 150 tons of good castings, the bad work coming from 
the foundry and annealing department not being counted. The 
power required for the department is derived from a 150 horse- 
power engine, which has been in use over twenty-five years, and is 
to-day a fine example of what care and a good engineer can do 
for an engine in regard to its longevity. 

On the harvesting machinery manufactured by the Wood 
Company a great deal of chain is used. The links composing 
these chains are produced in the malleable department and the 
chains are assembled and finished there. The links are cast from 
gated patterns, as many as fifty links to each mold. The gating 
is done in such a manner that when the castings have been 
broken from the gate bars very little irregularity of surface is 
evident; what projections remain are ground off after the anneal- 
ing process. The chains are assembled in continuous lengths by 
an automatic machine, the links being fed through a chute at the 
front and the chain fed out automatically at the back. The 
chains are subjected to various tests to insure their being the 
length required. Often (as the links are not machined before as- 
sembling) some of the chains will be shorter than required, this 
coming about through unequal rapping when molding, etc., the 
part where the links unite being thicker in some than in others, 
the accumulation in the course of a number of links making quite 



ANNEALING PROCESSES. 4^ 

a difference in the length of the chain. This defect is overcome 
by means of another machine, in which the chains are stretched 
until they are of the required length. 

There is a metal pattern shop connected with the department 
in which all the patterns used in the foundry are finished. In 
this shop some of the finest metal pattern-work that I have ever 
seen is turned out, as is evidenced by the fact that out of a thou- 
sand castings of a certain shape only two were found to be "off" 
enough to prevent their being machined in the fixtures provided 
for them. Besides producing all the malleable castings which 
the works require, the department also does custom work, and it 
has the reputation of having done some of the finest work in the 
country. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE HEATING AND COOLING OF STEEL — LOCATION OF HEATING 

ARRANGEMENTS THE USE OF GAS BLAST FURNACES AND 

HEATING MACHINES — TOUGH STEEL AND HARD STEEL; THE 
DIFFERENCE. 

The Heating and Cooling of Steel. 

There are any number of shops in which a great deal of un- 
necessary expense is incurred in the anneahng, hardening and 
tempering of steel through improper heating and cooling during 
the processes ; and while often inexperience is the cause of such 
expense, more often the crude and obsolete means employed for 
lieating and cooling are to blame. 

The fact is obvious to all that where expensive tools are 
made, proper facilities should be provided for the heating proc- 
esses through which they are put. If there is any economy in 
providing fine machine tools and employing skilled mechanics 
to make fine small tools and utterly ignoring the requirements for 
the annealing and tempering of them, we fail to see it. 

Now, while a plain ordinary forge is all right and will be 
found to be all that is necessary for the annealing and tempering 
of rough tools, it will not do for fine ones. When it is considered 
that an accurate cutting tool which has been annealed properly 
before finishing, and then carefully and accurately hardened and 
tempered afterward, will accomplish many times the amount of 
vfork that an imperfectly treated one will, the expense incurred 
in providing suitable heating facilities is insignificant, when the 
longevity of the tools treated is considered. In shops where a 
fair number of fine cutting tools are made and used, the cost of 
proper heating arrangements will be made up in a short time by 
the money saved through the use of properly hardened and tem- 
pered tools. Another thing : after having installed a suitable 
hardening plant, hire a mechanic to run it who understands the 
treatment of steel. With this combination, and a supply of good 
high-grade steel, there will be no dissatisfaction with the working 
ciualities of the cutting tools ; if there is, there v/ill be no excuse 
for it ; carelessness will be to blame. 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



51 




BIG. 2S. — TYPES OF EXPENSIVE MILLING CUTTERS. 



52 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

The only way to heat steel properly and thoroughly is to not 
expose it to the action of air when hot, as the air will decarbonize 
the surfaces considerably. "^Thus, when" steel is heated in a muffle 
furnace an even degree of heat is assured and all air is excluded. 

Proper Equipment for Hardening and Tempering. 

The proper equipment for annealing, hardening and temper- 
ing tools of different types can be decided by noting the various 
descriptions for obtaining the best results given in this and other 
chapters of the book. A number of types of furnaces, mufflers 
and other arrangements are shown in this chapter and their use 
and adaptation for different classes of work explained. 

Points to be Remembered. 

To heat and cool steel properly, remember the following : 
Never heat a piece of steel which is to be annealed above a bright 
red. Never heat a piece to be hardened above the lowest heat at 
which it will harden, and the larger the piece the more time re- 
quired to heat it is required, which will have to be higher than a 
smaller piece of the same steel, because of the fact that a large 
piece takes longer to cool than a smaller piece, as when a large 
piece of steel is plunged into the bath a large volume of steam 
arises and blows the water away from it, thus necessitating more 
time in the cooling. Thus, when the tool or die is very large, a 
tank should be used to harden it in, into which a stream of cold 
water is kept constantly running, as otherwise the red hot steel 
will heat the water to such a degree that the steel will remain 
soft. 

The Location of the Heating Furnace. 

Although in a great many shops very little importance is 
attached to the proper placing and locating of the furnace which 
is to be used during the hardening processes, it will be found that 
if the location chosen is in a darkened corner where the sun's 
rays will not come near it, the best results will be attained. No 
matter what kind of hardening is to be done, the heating arrange- 
ments should never be located where there is too strong a light, 
or where the sun shines in at any time of the day. If the light 
is uniform it will not be difficult to attain uniform results, while, 
on the contrary, if the light is too bright, there is a chance of 
heating the steel too hot and, when it becomes darker, not hot 



HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 53 

enough. When a uniform light is maintained during the day the 
men become accustomed to it and no trouble is experienced in get- 
ting the best of results. 

The Use of Gas Blast Furnaces and Heating Machines. 

The use of gas blast furnaces and heating machines has now 
become so extensive as to have almost completely superseded the 
old methods, and the furnaces and machines are now used in se- 
curing the highest possible efficiency in the use of heat for me- 
chanical purposes as well as in the processes of metallurgy and 
chemistry. 

Gas blast furnaces are designed for the economical use of gas 
as fuel in forges, crucible furnaces, annealing, enameling, case- 
hardening ovens, assaying, cupeling and other muffle furnaces, 
japanning ovens, and drying and baking kilns, in all of which 
the heat is generated by a properly proportioned mixture of gas 
and air, injected under positive pressure, through burners espe- 
cially adapted to each of the different kinds of gas in common 
use. 

Heating machines may be called "modern machine tools," 
made for special heating processes, as they are combinations of 
gas furnaces and moving machinery for the automatic feeding 
and discharging of work which is to be annealed, hardened, tem- 
pered or forged in quantities. 

The chief advantages derived from the use of gas as a fuel are 
the perfect adjustment of temperatures to suit exact require- 
ments, which is impossible with either solid or liquid fuel ; the 
ease with which any desired degree of heat can be obtained by 
simple adjustments of two valves, the uniformity of its distri- 
bution within given space, the partial or complete absence of oxida- 
tion, and, generally, the perfectly uniform condition under which 
any heating process can be performed irrespective of the quanti- 
ties of work to be heated. 

The gas consumption, cost of gas as compared with other 
fuel, while an important factor in determining the adoption of 
gas furnaces for the cruder operation of melting or forging, 
scarcely deserves consideration with reference to furnaces or 
heating machines for hardening, tempering or annealing large 
quantities of work, because no approximately equal amount of 
perfect work can be produced by the use of any other fuel than 
gas. 



54 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Gas Blast Forges — Their Use. 

Gas blast forges heat the work quickly, uniformly, and ^with 
little or no scale. They are always ready for use and develop 
the r.equired amount of heat in a few minutes. They are used lu 
machine shops for tool dressing and forging ; in the production of 
quantities of small forgings, such as cutlery, and for drop forg- 
ings generally. 

While offering decided advantages, no single gas forge or 
furnace can replace the ordinary coal forge in everything, because 
to be thoroughly effective, as well as economical in gas con- 
sumption, the gas forge must be made for a definite range of 
work, and its heating space limited so as to conform to its size 
and shape, with only fair allowance for clearance space. 

In order to determine the applicability of any of the various 
styles of gas forges now on the market, the dimensions of the 
entrance, height, width, depth, and length of the heating chamber 
must be considered, and a fair allowance made for clearance. 
When samples of work to be done are furnished to the manu- 
facturers of such machines, together with a statement of the 
quantities to be heated in any given time, they will design special 
forges. 

When gas blast forges are used in forging the overheating of 
the metal is entirely prevented, a non-oxidizing atmosphere re- 
ducing the scale to a minimum, thus supplying properly heated 
stock as fast as it can be handled. 

For welding, special forges should always be designed for any 
particular kind of work, so that the blast will be confined closely 
to the joint to be made. In welding tires, the diameter, width 
and thickness will determine the shape of the entrance to the forge 
and conform to it. 

Combination Gas Furnace for General Machine Shop Work. 

In Fig. 26 we illustrate a combination gas furnace ready to 
operate. 

This furnace combines on one base three most useful furnaces 
for general machine shop and tool work. It will heat quickly 
and uniformly any piece or pieces that will go into its various 
openings. The muffle can be heated to a good heat for hardening 
in from ten to twelve minutes and kept at the desired temperature 
indefinitely. The forge will heat a piece i inch round to a good 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



55 



hardening heat in one minute, starting with the furnace cold. 
The crucible full of lead can be heated to cherry red in about 
thirty-five minutes. 

A furnace of this type occupies very little room ; does not 
require to be connected to chimney ; can be placed right in the 
tool room or anywhere it is most convenient ; can be started in- 
stantly, and covers a range of uses that makes it practically indis- 
pensable. All sorts of small tools, such as dies, milling cutters, 




PIG. 26. — COMBINATION GAS FURNACE. 



reamers, punches, taps, drills, springs, cutlery, marking rolls, 
etc., can be' heated in the muffle under the best possible condi- 
tions, 

A section of this combination furnace, showing the muffle 
with walls cut away to illustrate arrangements of combustion 
chamber and muffle, is shown in Fig. 2^. 

The flame is projected from the double burners downward into 
the chamber encircling the muffle ; the lining is of such shape that 
a rotary motion is imparted to the flame, causing same to distri- 



56 



BLARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



bute itself evenly all over the inclosed space ; the products of 
combustion are drawn ofif by the two small openings at the top of 

the chamber. The muffle is 
heated rapidly and evenly 
^throughout; the degree of heat 
is under perfect control; the 
work is absolutely secluded from 
the products of combustion, a 
feature of the greatest import- 
ance in heating dies, milling cut- 
ters and other expensive tools. 
Absolute uniformity can be 
maintained; overheating can be 
entirely avoided, difficult pieces 
can be hardened without danger 
of cracking by reason of an even 
heat throughout. 

Every manufacturer whose 
product involves the machining 




FIG. 27. — SECTION OP FURNACE 
CONTAINING MUFFLE, SIZE 
5x8x15 INCHES. 




FIG. 28. — FORGE SECTION OF FURNACE. SIZE OF OPENING, 
2,}4x4)4 INCHES. LENGTH, 1 4 INCHES. 



HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



57 



of metals realizes the necessity of having modern apparatus for 
systematically applying heat, the output of his entire plant depend- 
ing quite as much on the temper of his tools as on any other one 
condition. To get good results from tools use good steel and 
harden and temper it properly and the result will invariably be 
satisfactory. 

The forge section of this furnace is shown in Fig. 28, 

The combustion chamber is circular in form and is heated 




FIG. 29. — CRUCIBLE SECTION OF FURNACE. 



by two burners which project the flame downward, the form of 
the lining giving the flame a rotary motion, evenly distributing 
it all over the chamber. The heat is under perfect control. This 
forge is very convenient for dressing and hardening tools and 
small forgings and for a variety of work where seclusion from the 
products of combustion is not required. 

In Fig' 29 is shown the crucible section of the furnace. The 



58 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

combustion chamber is circular in form ; burners are so arranged 
that the flame is projected into the chamber without striking the 
crucible direct. A rapid centrifugal motion is imparted, dis- 
tributing the heat evenly and thoroughly. The products of com- 
bustion are drawn off at vent in the rear. 

For heating a great variety of small pieces the lead bath offers , 
m.any advantages over other methods. By keeping the tempera- 
ture of the lead at the proper point, overheating is impossible and 
uniformity is secured. Small pieces can be heated very rapidly 
by this method. 

For tempering a crucible (Fig. 30) similar to the one used for 




FIG. 30. — CRUCIBLE. 

the lead bath is filled with beef tallow. The exact heat required 
to temper or draw the work is easily maintained as indicated by 
a thermometer, which should be suspended in the bath. For all 
small tools, milling cutters, screw springs, punches, dies, etc., there 
is no method of tempering (or drawing) so satisfactory as this. 
Temperatures that have been found to give the best results can 
repeatedly be employed. The work to be tempered can be sus- 
pended in the liquid tallow by means of a wire basket, or other 
convenient method, and can be left there indefinitely without dan- 
ger of the temper running too low ; all parts of the piece or pieces 
immersed, whether of thin or thick section, will be evenly 
heated. 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 59 

Gas Forge for Small Work. 
The gas forge shown in Fig. 31 is of a type commonly used 
for dressing and hardening tools and smaller forgings. The 
heating chamber is circular inside, and its capacity is Hmited iir 




PIG. 31. — GAS FORGE. ENTRANCE, 6 INCHES WIDE BY 3 INCHES 
HIGH ; DEPTH OE HEATING SPACE, 6 INCHES. 

the size of the entrance to the heatmg chamber, and a correspond- 
ing opening in the back is ordinarily closed by a "plug," which 
can be removed when a clear passage through the furnace is re- 



6o 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



quired. Two burners project into the heating chamber from the 
distributing pipe, D, W, so adjusted that direct contact of the 
flames with the work is avoided. Perfect combustion is steadily 
maintained, the work is quickly and evenly heated and oxidization 
reduced to a minimum. 

The furnace is connected with air by a tin pipe at B, and the 




FIG. 32. — GAS forge; FOR HEATING DROP FORGINGS, 



cock A controls the air supply. Gas connects with union from 
the nearest supply pipe by ^-inch pipe at P, and globe valve G 
controls the gas supply. The small cock C feeds a "pilot light" 
in the mouth of the furnace, which is left burning so as to 
instantly light the forge when the main supply is turned on. The 
bottom of the furnace can be cleaned of scaling by removing a 
plug which is held in place by the set screw I, which passes 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 6l 

through the hanger, K. The air relief valve R is a test valve to 
show the air pressure at the furnace, and when this has been found 
sufficient it can be weighted down tight. 

Gas Forge for Heating Drop-Forgings. 

The style of forge shown in Fig. 32 is extensively used for 
drop forgings, to heat blanks continuously and keep them at the 
proper heat. The heating space is 10 inches deep, 8 inches wide 
and 3 inches high. The burners, B, penetrate the chamber from 
opposite sides and the flames do not strike the work direct. , The 
blanks rest upon a fire brick bottom, which is removable from the 
rear for cleaning out the chamber. This forge is extensively used 
in connection with oil gas, but can be adapted to every other 
kind. 

Air Tempering Furnace. 

Air tempering furnaces of the type shown in Fig. 33 are used 
for drawing the temper of steel work of all kinds, but more espe- 
cially for small light work in quantities. While cutters, punches^ 
dies and knife blades are perfectly tempered in heated oil, in oil 
tempering furnaces, the air tempering furnace is used when the 
oil stain is objectionable, or when it is desired to show a bright, 
clear, temper color of any desired shade, from a light straw to a 
blue or gray. 

The furnace contains an iron muffle with a horizontal partition 
in the bottom which forms an air-heating chamber below the 
level of the entrance into which the air is forced from the blower 
which operates the furnace, the injection of which is controlled by 
the valve H. From this air heating chamber the heated air is 
disiributed through numerous fine holes so as to keep the muffle 
filled with heated air under a slight pressure, which is exerted 
around a thermometer stem when the door is closed. 

The burner is controlled by the air valve A, and the gas valve^ 
G. The connection with blower is to the drum, D, and gas is 
brought to the gas valve, G. The burner distributes the heat 
evenly under the muffle and around it, so that the atmospheric 
temperature within the working space of the muffle is perfectly 
even throughout. , 

The work is placed upon a wire tray and evenly distributed 
over its surface, and is constantly subjected to the action of fresh 
air heated to the proper degree. 

The tray containing the work rests upon the open grating 



62 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



shown in the cut, which is raised above the bottom of the muffle, 
and the heated air is forced through and around the work from 
the perforated heating chamber, thus coming in contact with 
freshly heated air constantly. 

The operation is as follows : 

It will-require about 40 minutes to heat a furnace of this type 




FIG. 33. — AIR TEMPERING OVEN. 



to the 600 deg. required for a blue temper. This temperature 
being indicated by the thermometer, the work is inserted and the 
door closed. The thermometer will then show a decided decrease 
in temperature due to the absorption of the heat by the work. 
After lapse of a certain time, determined by the weight of the 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



(^z 



charge, the temperature will commence to rise again, and when 
it gets back to, say, 600 deg., where the thermometer stood when 
the work was inserted, the work is promptly removed. 

It should be remembered that the thermometer will not indicate 
the precise temperature at which steel reaches a certain temper 
color under other conditions, but the temperature at which work 
will reach the exact temper color desired being once noted, the 




FIG. 34. — GAS FORGE FOR KNIFE AND SHEAR BLADES. 



64 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



furnace will perform the same work with the same degree of heat 
ill the same time, so that the operator will then be able to turn 
out successive charges by simply watching the thermometer and 
a clock. 

Gas Forge, for Knife and Shear Blades. 
The construction of the furnace shown in Fig. 34 is similar to 
that of an oven furnace, but the firebrick slab upon which the 
work rests is ridged. These ridges form the partitions for the 




PIG. 35. — BENCH FORGE. 

heating of each blade separately. The slab is as wide as the en- 
trance, and does not extend to the rear, but leaves a narrow slot 
through which the heat is forced from under the slab upward 
around the rear end of the slab and then forward in even volume 
to the vent, E, over the entrance. 

In order to protect the points and thin ends of the blades, the 
corrugated slab may be covered as far as necessary by the fire- 
brick slab, F, and thus heated by conductivity rather than direct 
action of the flame, while the thicker portions of the blades are 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 65 

directly subjected to it. The difference in the time required to 
heat the thin and the heavier portions of the blade is thus approxi- 
mately equalized, and the whole blade heated uniformly to the 
exact degree required. 

The cut represents a furnace made especially for shear blades 
from 8 to 12 inches long, and will accommodate 12 blades at a 
time, and will heat blades for forging or hardening as fast as 
they can be conveniently handled. 

Bench Forge. 

The bench forge shown in Fig. 35 is a handy little gas forge 
to be placed on the work bench, for forging and tempering small 
tools, heating the ends of rods or small pieces of metal of any 
kind. The heating space or chamber is i^ inches wide and 
high and 3 inches deep, heated evenly throughout by two side 
.burners whose focus is in the center of the slot. Work can be 
placed over the slot and heated from below, or the slot can be 
covered by a slab shown in cut, and the heat confined to the 
chamber and raised to a very high degree quickly. 

The forge can be permanently connected with gas pipe and air 
supply, or by rubber hose to be movable. 

Gas is supplied through ^-inch pipe, varies according to 
work done and quality of gas, and the amount consumed is too 
small to be considered when its work is taken into account. 

Oven Fnrnaces for Annealing and Hardening. 

Oven furnaces are used to heat a square or oblong space of any 
desired dimensions, evenly throughout, to any required degree of 
heat from a cherry red to a white heat, and especially to main- 
tain any required temperature steadily for any desired length 
of time. 

They will do the work of muffle furnaces perfectly except 
where an absolute seclusion of the work from the products of 
combustion is necessary. They are used for heating cutters, dies, 
reamers, shear blades, saws, and for annealing all kinds of metal 
work in quantities. 

The annexed cut of oven furnace, Fig. 36, is typical of all oven 
furnaces except dimensions and the shape of entrance high. The 
entrance closed by the door, E, is 12 inches wide and 6 inches 
high. The firebrick slab, S, separates heating chamber above it. 

The slab, S, covers the full length of the heating chamber from 



66 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



front to rear, and is supported by small angle bricks located be- 
tween the burners so as not to obstruct them. 

The width of the slab is less than that of the interior of the 
chamber, so that a slot is formed between the edges of the slab 



'^J' 




FIG. 36. — OVEN furnace; FOR HARDENING AND ANNEALING. 



and the side walls of even width throughout. The burners, C, 
bolted to the distributing channel, B, are transposed with refer- 
ence to the opposite series of burners, and arranged so that the 
injected flames pass one another in opposite directions alter- 
nately. The injection of the fuel under pressure forces the heat 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 6/ 

through the slots on each side of the slab, S, into the heating 
chamber above it, in even volume, and when the combustion cham- 
ber under the slab, S, has been heated up, the heat rapidly accumu- 
lates in the heating chamber. The products of combustion are 
released by the vent-holes, V, which being in the center, draw 
the heat upward from both sides, thus thoroughly heating the 
Toof of the oven, from which the heat is reflected downward. 

By the proportionate arrangement of all parts of the construc- 
tion the heated chamber is evenly heated, and a block of steel 
placed as shown in the cut, will be heated up with perfect even- 
ness simultaneously from all sides. The vestibuled entrance 
materially lessens the cooling-ofif effect produced by the opening 
door, E. 

The gas supply and burners can be readily adjusted so that no 
flame whatever will be visible in the heating chamber, but as this 
would conduce to oxidation, the proportion of gas is indicated 
when a very small flame issues from the vent, V, after the furnace 
has become thoroughly heated. For all metal work the at- 
mosphere in the heating chamber should be just visible by a 
"flimmering" effect, which indicates a non-oxidizing atmosphere. 

The advantages of an oven furnace over a "muffle" consist 
in the more immediate and direct action of the heat upon the 
work, the lessened running expense by dispensing with costly and 
perishable muffles, and the adaptability of this furnace to very 
much larger work. 

Case-Hardening Furnaces. 

Case-hardening furnaces of the type shown in Figs. 37 and 38 
are oven furnaces in construction, but being intended for work 
requiring the continuous application of higher heat, the linings 
are much heavier, and the entrance is closed by solid firebrick 
plugs, P, which are inserted and withdrawn by the cast iron car- 
riers, D. As their name indicates they are mainly used for the 
process of case-hardening in cast-iron boxes, but also for anneal- 
ing heavy steel dies, hubs, tool steel, etc. The slab which divides 
the combustion chamber from the heating chamber is heavier than 
in oven furnaces, properly supported by brickwork to bear heavy 
weights, and cast-iron rails are placed over the slab on which the 
boxes are removed in and out. 

The burners, B, cover the whole length of the heating space; 
the opposite burners are connected to one gas and one air valve, 



68 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



which control the supply. The door plug, P, is of the exact size 
and thickness of the entrance, so that it can be easily inserted or 
removed by cast-iron skeleton door, D. 

The advantages of gas blast case-hardening furnaces are that 
they do work more quickly and thoroughly than in the best of 
coal ovtos in use, because from the beginning of the operation all 




FIG. 37.— CASE-HARDENING FURNACE. 



the boxes inserted — and all parts of each box — are heated sim- 
ultaneously and alike, and that the heat can be kept constant at the 
maximum degree which the cast-iron boxes will stand. These 
advantages shorten the process materially, and when once the 
time required for a given amount and kind of work has been as- 
certained, the same result can be produced thereafter, in the same 
time. 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



6q 



^Heating Machine for Hardening the Edges of Mozver Blades. 
The machine shown in Fig. 39 is used for hardening the edges 
of mower blades, and will operate as fast as the blades can be 
dropped into the jaws of the link belt K at I. The jaws are so 
formed as to expose only the edge of the blade as far as it is to be 
hardened, to the action of the heat, while the body of the blade is 




FIG. 38. — CAS?;-HARDENING PURNACE. 

protected by the shape of the jaws as they close upon the blade 
before entering the heating chamber. 

The speed of delivery is regulated by a countershaft with 
friction cone, placed above the machine and connected with the 
driving pull, H. The burners, B, emit a short focus flame from 
both sides and are under the perfect control of the gas valve, G, 
and the air valve, A. The jaws of the link belt open as they pass 
over the center of the sprocket at I, where the blades are inserted, 
closing just as they enter the furnace, and the blades pass through 
the heating space at the proper speed, first ascertained by a few 



70 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



pilot blanks run through the furnace, and are dropped mto the 
cooling bath from the mouth, E, at the exact heat required for 
hardening the cutting edges. 

The gas connects at union, G, and air, under a pressure of at 
least I pound to the square inch, at A. Where the machine is to 
be used on one uniform kind of blade, the proper speed may be 
experimerftally obtained, and the friction cone countershaft dis- 




FIG. 39. — HEATING MACHINE FOR HARDENING MOWER BLADES. 

pensed with. Where the blades differ in thickness or size, a fric- 
tion cone is indispensable. 

Heating Machine for Hardening Cones and Shells. 

In Fig. 40 is shown a furnace that is used for hardening 

cones, shells, pinions and similar small work, which can be stuck 

on the pins, which are inserted in the links of the endless chain. 

The work passes through the evenly heated furnace at a properly 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. /I 

regulated speed and is discharged from the mouth, F, as fast as it 
is fed into the bath, T, without needless exposure to the air. The 
heat is under absolute control and the speed of the chain is ad- 
justed to it so as to impart the exact temperature to the work re- 
quired for proper hardening. When constantly used for the same 
work the proper speed of the chain is ascertained experimentally 
by turning the pull by hand and then speeding the machine ac- 




PIG. 40. — HEATING MACHINE FOR HARDENING CONES AND SHELLS. 

cordingly. When used for a variety of work countershaft with 
friction cone pulleys is needed. 

Heating Machine with Revolving Trays. 

The furnace shown in Fig. 41 is used for tempering needles, 

small blades, springs and screws. Its action depends. upon heated 

air, with temperature so regulated that articles of irregular shape 

can be exposed to it long enough to impart the correct color or 



72 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




PIG. 41. — HEATING MACHINE WITH REVOLVING TRAYS, 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 73 

temper to the heavier section, without overheating the thinnest 
and lightest part of the same piece. This is accompHshed by 
regulation of the burner, v^diich is usually divided into three sec- 
tions, each under separate control. By these means the injection 
of the heat evenly throughout the furnace is easily secured, and 
the overheating of either end or the center is prevented. The 
burners heat an air chamber connected with the air drum by the 
pipe and valve A3, and heated air is distributed in the heating 
chamber through perforations in the top of the air chamber under 
light pressure, relieved through the vent cock at N. The work is 
placed in the pans, DD, which rotate at a speed of twice or thrice 
per minute, hanging loosely from rods connected with spokes 
around the driving shaft in the center, which receives motion from 
the worm gear, IH, connected with power. The door, E, is closed 
v/hen furnace is charged with work, and opened for its observation. 
When open, the door forms a shelf or rest for the pans. The 
thermometer indicates a degree of temperature somewhat different 
from the actual heat in the furnace. Once tried for a certain 
temper of color, it is a perfect guide for repeating the same re- 
sult. 

Heating Machine for Small Parts. 

The style of heating machine shown in Fig. 42 is used for 
heating large quantities of small steel work of uniform size and 
weight, evenly and uniformly, to any required degree for hard- 
ening, or for annealing the same, automatically. The work is 
placed on the cast-iron link belt, Ci, which revolves entirely 
within the heating chamber, N, except where momentarily exposed 
at entrance, M, to receive the work. The burners, B, penetrate 
from each side of the furnace above the link belt, and are perfectly 
controlled by the gas valve, G, and the air valve, A. 

The belt is supported by sprockets in the heating chamber, 
whose shafts revolve on the rolls, D. The belt is moved at re- 
quired speed by means of a friction cone which is placed above the 
machine and connects with the driving sprockets, F, by the chains, 
HH. 

The weight and size of the work, and the degree of heat which 
it requires, determine the speed at which the belt is moved, 
and consequently the output. The temperature of the heating 
chamber and the speed of the belt being under perfect control, 
the output is only limited by the time it takes to heat the work to 
the exact degree required. 



74 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



/^ 



The cooling part is not a part of the machine, but is shown 
merely to illustrate the whole operation. A proper cooling bath 
is important. It should be of ample size, and so arranged as to 
promptly cool the work without varying materially the tempera- 
ture of the oil. Gas connection is made to the union, G, and an 
air blast from a positive pressure blower connects at A. 

Barrel Heating Machine for Hardening Balls, Sazv Teeth, Screws, 

Etc. 
A type of machine designed for hardening quantities of bicycle 




FIG. 43. — AUTOMATIC BARREL HEATING AND HARDENING MACHINE. 



balls, but which has since been used for hardening detachable 
saw teeth, pens, nuts, bolts, screws, and other work not exceed- 
mg two and one-half inches in any dimension, is shown in Figs. 
43 and 44. 

Steel work of any shape is evenly and thoroughly heated to 



76 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



the exact degree required, regardless of its shape, the thinnest and 
thickest ])arts being discharged at exactly the same temperature. 

The machine is capable of heating from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds 
of steel work per day, the rate of delivery depending upon weight 
and shape of the piece. 

The cooling bath marked X in the cut is merely a suggestion 
and its size depends upon the work to be done, as well as upon 
the available water supply for cooling. Its size and construction 




FIG. 44. — LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH CENTER OP BARREL 
HEATING MACHINE. 



also depend upon the temperature of the water to be used, and 
will vary under different circumstances. 

Dififerent methods are employed to cool oil baths. One is to 
draw the hot oil from the top, running it through pipes immersed 
iii cold water, and pumping it back to the bottom of the tank 
cooled. Another is as illustrated. The tank holding the oil is 
shallow and water jacketed, the water being circulated at the rate 
required to keep the bath at proper temperature, determined by 
reference to a thermometer. 

Where the water supply itself is not sufficiently cool, the bath 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. yj 

may require cooling by ice, or the operation of the furnace may 
have to be Hmited to the capacity of the bath. 

In several instances a machine of the type has heated work 
faster than it could be cooled, and the possible output therefore 
greatly depends upon the bath. 

Construction and Operation. 

The cylindrical body of the machine heavily lined with fire- 
brick incloses a solid cast-iron cylinder with a spiral way, 2% 
inches to 3 inches wide. The shaft of this "spiral way cylinder'* 
is a heavy wrought-iron pipe containing the wrought-iron spiral, 
E. This hollow shaft and the cast-iron spiral cylinder revolve 
together. The heat is generated over the drum and is evenly dis- 
tributed from both sides of the burners, R. The products of com- 
bustion are allowed to enter the spiral drum, thus excluding- 
atmospheric air from it to prevent oxidation, and find their vent 
through the bottom of the furnace by being forced through the 
charge, L 

The work being placed in the hopper, B, which is kept filled to 
the level of the entrance, the scoop, C, revolving with the cylinder, 
fills itself with work as it is rotated downward, and empties its 
contents into the stationary funnel, D, when it rotates to a position 
above it. From this feeding funnel, D, the work drops into the 
spiral way, E, and is propelled to the opposite end of the inner 
spiral, where it drops into the outer cast-iron spiral way, H, in 
which it is propelled in the opposite direction and drops from the 
cylinder, I, to the chute, K, into the cooling bath, L. 

The stationary feeding funnel, D, with the scoop, C, the in- 
terior spiral, E, and the cast-iron spiral drum, IH, revolve to- 
gether by action of the worm gear, P O. The number of revolu- 
tions required to discharge the work at the proper heat are experi- 
mentally ascertained, and the rate of discharge being once estab- 
lished, the machine will turn out a perfectly uniform product. 

The speed is regulated by a "friction cone" countershaft placed 
overhead, from which the power is transmitted to the pulleys, O. 

The furnace is lighted by withdrawing the plug, N, and turn- 
ing on the air full, inserting a torch, and then turning on just 
sufficient gas, so that the burners emit a perfectly blue flame. 
The gas and air supply valves, A and G, permit the heat to be 
regulated to exact requirements. The temt^erature of the drum 
can be observed by the removal of the lighting plug, N, and by 



yS HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

means of the friction cone the time required for heating and de- 
livery can be regulated with precision. 

It will usually require from 45 minutes to one hour to heat the 
spiral wayS~-lor hardening. At the expiration of that time the 
machine will turn out the work at a regular rate. Where thin 
and thick work are put through the machine together, the time of 
delivery will be determined by the heaviest article put through, 
but the lightest or thinnest will not be overheated unless the tem- 
perature is allowed to increase beyond the highest degree required 
by hardening. 

The main body of the machine is a solid fireclay cylinder in- 
closed by a heavy sheet-iron casing. All bearings are ball or 
roller bearings, needing but little lubrication. Both heads of the 
machine can be removed for the inserting of a new cylinder when 
required, the body of the furnace resting independently lipon the 
table, thus remaining in position if heads are detached. 

Heating Machine for Tempering and Coloring Steel. 

A machine for tempering and coloring steel work in quantities 
with perfect uniformity is shown in Fig. 45. The cut represents 
an improved type of machine which has been in satisfactory opera- 
tion for several years, for tempering and coloring pens, bicycle 
chain link blocks, penholders, saw teeth, screws, buttons, and 
other similar work not over two inches in any dimension. 

The operation is performed by subjecting the work to the 
action of sand or ground flint heated to the proper degree re- 
quired for any grade of temper, and a bright, clean and perfectly 
uniform temper color is obtained when the work has been properly 
prepared for coloring by thorough cleansing. 

The capacity of the machine depends upon the size and weight 
of the articles, but as a criterion for its efficiency we can say that 
we have witnessed bicycle chain blocks and insertable saw teeth 
being put through at the rate of 150 pounds per hour. 

The work is placed in the hopper, X, containing a small scoop, 
which at every revolution deposits a measured quantity into a fun- 
nel leading into the heating drum. This drum, contained in the 
main body of the machine, is provided with a spiral way which 
gradually propels the work to discharge Z. 

The spiral partitions are inclosed by a perforated cylinder, 
through which sand or flint heated to the proper temperature to 



HEATING STEEL GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



79 



obtain a desired temper or color is constantly sifted upon the 
v/ork. 

Provisions are made to keep a sufficient quantity of sand stored 




FIG. 45. — HEATING MACHINE; FOR TEMPERING AND COLORING. 



above the work, so as to secure its even distribution into all the 
spiral divisions of the drum, thus effecting its uniform action upon 
the work. 

The outer casing of the drum is subjected to an evenly distri- 



8o 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



buted heat, controlled by proper adjustment of the gas valve, G^ 
and the air valve, B. 

The speed at which the work passes through the spiral drum is 
regulated hf a friction cone placed above the machine, and the 
temperature by reference to the thermometer, I. 

By noticg the temperature at which differ'jnt colors are ob- 




FIG. 46. — CIRCULAR ANNEALING AND HARDENING FURNACE. 



HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 8l 

tained by a given rate of delivery, the exact conditions of heat 
and speed under which a variation of color or temper is obtained 
can be readily observed and the perfect uniformity of the output 
assured. 

Circular Annealing and Hardening Furnace. 

The furnace shown in Fig. 46 is used for heating large rims, 
rings, discs, dies and other circular steel blocks which do not ex- 
ceed 30 inches in diameter and 10 inches in thickness. 

The illustration shows a circular block, K, resting upon the fire- 
brick supports, H, so placed that they do not in any way obstruct 
the flames emitted from the four burners, B. The direction of 
the flame is tangential at the proper angle, to secure a rotary or 
whirling motion of the flame, and the even distribution of the heat, 
effecting the perfectly even heating of the work. This should be 
placed centrally, i. e., equidistant from the inner walls of the 
cylindrical casing. 

The cover, D, is attached to the cover lift, and held by the 
adjustable chains, EE. It is lifted by a toggle joint by pulling the 
lever handle inserted in the socket, L, forward, and easily swings 
to either side. To replace the firebrick cover, the clasp, M, on 
the sheet iron belt which tightly incloses it is unscrewed, and a 
new brick lining inserted. The valve, G, admits gas and connects 
with the gas supply. A connects with air supply. 

Oil Tempering Furnaces. 

Furnaces of the type shown in Figs. 47 and 48 are used for 
tempering steel work in oil or tallow, and have the advantage 
over similar apparatus heated by coal that the heat is evenly dis- 
tributed and penetrates the bath from all sides, that the temperature 
is under perfect control, that no flame can escape from the com- 
bustion chamber to ignite the oil or fumes arising from it, and 
that the temperature of the oil can be raised to an exceptionally 
high degree without risk of flashing. They are made in shapes 
and sizes to suit, round, square or oblong. 

Furnace, Fig. 47, has the burners, B, arranged in two separate 
sections of four, two on each side, each section being under 
separate control of the gas and air valves below the distributing 
pipes, D and E, respectively. 

To heat up the bath, both sets of burners are turned on, and 
when the desired temperature is reached, as indicated by the ther- 



82 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



mometer, L, one set of four burners can instantly be put out of 
use, so as to prevent the too rapid increase of the heat to the flash 
point. 

The work is placed in the basket, K, wHch may be filled to the 
top. The irilmersion of the work in the bath quickly reduces its 




FIG. 47. — OIL TEMPERING FURNACE. 

temperature, and the work remains in the bath until the ther- 
mometer shows that the heat of the bath is restored in the proper 
degree. The best oil to be used is "Black Tempering Oil," gen- 
erally supplied by the agencies of the Standard Oil Company, 



HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



83 



which can be raised to a temperature of 600 deg. F., and will tem- 
per steel from straw color to a light blue. The basket, K, is 18 
inches long, 10 inches wide and 8 inches deep. 

Oil tempering furnace, Fig. 48, in its construction is similar 



PIG 




CIRCULAR OIL TICMPERING FURNACB. 



to that of a soft metal furnace. The pot is 10^ inches in diam- 
eter, 10 inches deep, and the temperature is regulated by reference 
to the thermometer, T, held in place by the clamp, K. The bulb 
of the thermometer extends below the middle of the bath, and the 
burners are arranged to distribute the heat with perfect evenness 
around the pot. 

For small work a wire basket is used to contain the articles to 
be treated, while larger work is suspended in the bath in any con- 
venient way. The temperature being under the perfect control 
of the gas and air valves, G and A, the bath is heated until the 
thermometer shows the proper heat. When work is submerged 
in the bath it cools down, and the work remains there until the 



84 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 85 

temperature rises again to the original degree, when the work 
is removed. 

Heating Machine for Hardening Chain. 

This machine shown in Fig. 49 is one of many heating devices 
built for special purposes. 

The idea successfully accomplished in this machine is to harden 
chains made from sheet steel, which passes from reel Ri first 
through the heating space into the cooling bath and is received on 
reel R2 perfectly and uniformly hardened. 

By the accurate adjustment of burners and speed of travel a 
perfect uniformity in hardness of all the links is secured, the 
cooling bath is kept at a uniform temperature by proper circula- 
tion of the water or oil, which is drawn off the top, and after cool- 
ing is pumped back into the bath at the bottom. After the chain 
is hardened and wound upon the reel the whole reel is inserted 
in an oil tempering furnace to be drawn to the exact temper 
required. 

Cylindrical Case-Hardening Furnace. 

Furnaces of the type shown in Fig. 50 are used for case-hard- 
ening car axles of about 6 inches in diameter and not exceeding 8 
feet in length. 

The axle is inserted in the wrought-iron tube, R, having an 
interior diameter of 10 inches. The axle is placed in the exact 
center of the retort and the carbon packed tightly around it, after 
covering such parts as are not to be case-hardened with fire-clay 
or some other non-carbonaceous material. The retort being 
packed it is let down into the furnace from a suitable crane over- 
head, and the cover, K, put in position as shown, when the furnace 
is ready for operation. 

The distribution of the heat evenly from the bottom to the top 
of the retort is effected by two independently controlled sets of 
burners ; the lower set by the valves G2 and A2, and the upper set 
by the valves G3 and A3, while the common supply valves are 
Gi and Ai. G stands in each case for gas and A for air. 

The proper adjustment having been made on the lower and 
upper sets of the burners so as to secure an approximately correct 
distribution of the heat, the main gas and air valves are alone 
utilized to control the temperature, and the distribution of the 
heat properly over the whole length is then effected by the two 
vents, one in the bottom indicated by M2, arxi one on top in the 



86 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




Vl( 50. — CYLINDRICAI. CASE-HARDENING FURNACE FOR CASE 
HARDENING CAR AXLES. 



HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



87 



center of the cover, K. The top vent being closed entirely, the 
heat is driven downward and the products of combustion escape 
through the vent, N2. If N2 is closed and cover vent wide open, 
the heat is forced upward too rapidly, but by partly closing both 
vents, as much as will be found necessary from observation, a 




l^IG. 51. — CYLINDRICAL CASE-HARDENING FURNACE. 



88 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



perfectly uniform distribution of the heat is effected without a 
very close adjustment of the relative strength of the upper and 
lower burner tiers. 

The regulation of the distribution by the vent holes is espe- 
cially important when the temperature is to be raised quickly 
and the burners turned on as full as possible in both tiers. 

Each row of burners has three burner tips, F, as shown, which 




FIG. 52. — ^SOFT METAL FURNACE FOR LEAD HARDENING. 

enter the cylinders from four sides at the proper angle to secure 
a rotary motion of the flame around the retort without impinging 
upon it. The body of the furnace contains three observation holes 
closed by the plugs, Li, L2, and L3. The lighting hole is not 
visible in cut but is indicated in the rear of the furnace by N2 and 
closed by the plug Ni. 

Lead Hardeui)i(:^ Furnace. 
The style of furnace shown in Fig. 52 is used for heating lead 



HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



89 



in black lead crucibles of any regular size for hardening steel 
work. 

Any black lead crucible used for lead hardening must be regu- 
larly emptied after each operation. If the lead is allowed to cool 
and solidify, the crucible will crack when heated up again. 




90 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



Melting Pots. 
Fi&s- 53. and 54 show charts of pots used for melting soft 
metals andifor heating cyanide or lead for hardening, and oil or 
tallow for tempering. 




HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 



91 



Cyanide Hardening Furnaces. 
The furnace shown in Fig. 55 is of a type used for heating 
steel work in cyanide of potassium for hardening; they are used 
"by the leading bank note engravers in the United States for hard- 
ening transfer rolls and engraved plates, and by manufacturers 




I^IG. 55. —CYANIDE HARDENING FURNACE FOR CUTTERS, 
DIES, ROLLS, ETC. 



92 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



for hardening- cutters, dies, springs, and other steel work requiring- 
a hardened surface. Their general features are also utilized in 
apparatus for heating chemical solution where the escape of 




HEATING STEEL — GAS BLAST FURNACES. 93 

poisonous fumes from the pot or caldron into the room must be 
prevented. It contains a cast-iron or steel pot suspended by a 
flange with raised edge in the center of the heating chamber. 
The two opposite burners, BB, inject the flames into the space 
"between the pot and surrounding firebrick lining, and heat the 
pot evenly without coming in direct contact with it. The two 
lighting holes in front are closed after the furnace is put in op- 
€ration, and the products of combustion find their outlet in the pipe, 
E, which extends upward in the rear and enters the elbow on the 
sheet-iron pipe, S, passing the draft hole near the top of the hood, 
H. The heat from the combustion chamber is thus injected into 
the draft pipe, S, and a positive draft is created which carries ofif 
the fumes as they rise from the pot. Thus the poisonous fumes 
are carried ofif into the chimney, and with ordinary care none 
escapes into the room. Gas and air are indicated at G and A. 

Regular Sises of Muffles. 

The annexed chart. Fig. 56, shows the regular sizes of muffles 
which are on the market. The number of the muffle corresponds 
to the number of the furnace, so that orders for the muffles can 
be given by the furnace number, or a furnace ordered by the num- 
ber of the muffle. 

The dimensions of muffles are their interior measurement. 

MiMe Furnace. 

The muffle furnace shown in Fig. 57 is typical of large sizes 
for heavy kinds of work requiring high heat. It is entirely en- 
cased in cast-iron framework firmly bolted together, with heavy 
linings and carefully trimmed and fitted fireclay sections. The 
casing is filled in above and around the arch with non-conducting 
material to lessen radiation, and the muffle 'bottom is protected 
l)y extra supports, as in oven furnaces, to prevent sagging under 
weight. 

Tough Steel and Hard Steel — The Difference. 

Although few mechanics seem to be aware of it, there is con- 
siderable difference between steel which is hard and steel which is 
iDOth hard and tough, i. e., when a tool has been hardened and 
tempered to the degree thought best for the work which it is to 
perform and the edge does not stand up, but, instead, crumbles 
away, the steel is hard but is not tough and was heated wrongly in 



94 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



hardening, or was not quenched right. On the contrary, when a 
tool has been heated properly and hardened and tempered as it 
should be, it can be very hard and the edge will hold because for 
given degrees of hardness the same degree of toughness has been 
imparted during the heating and hardening processes. 




FIG. 57. — MUFFIvB FURNACE. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE HARDENING OF STEEL HARDENING IN WATER^ BRINE, OIL, 

AND SOLUTIONS — SPECIAL PROCESSES FOR SPECIAL STEEL. 

Judgment and Carefulness in Hardening. 

As a great deal depends on the judgment and carefulness of 
the man who does the hardening in a shop, in all large manufac- 
turing establishments the job of doing all the hardening should 
be given to one man. On this man's efficiency and judgment will 
depend the increasing or the reducing of the cost account, as one 
piece of steel which has been hardened properly will accomplish 
many times as much as a piece which has been hardened imper- 
fectly. The manner in which the operator puts the steel into the 
quenching liquid will be responsible more than anything else, for 
having the pieces come out hard and free from cracks or deformi- 
ties. Work with deep recesses will often have to go into the water 
with the recessed part first, or vise versa, according to the shape 
and location of the same. 

When hardening large pieces which are worked out in the 
center, a stream of water striking against them is often abso- 
lutely necessary. There are some grades of steel which will give 
the best results if they are removed from the water as soon as the 
vibration has ceased and laid aside until cold. Experience, skill, 
and good sound judgment are necessary to do good hardening. 

Successful Hardening. 

In almost every establishment where any large amount of steel 
is hardened, some one man will be found who is considered an 
expert in the art. When such men really possess the required 
judgment and skill they are careful in the heating and quenching, 
and good results are attained. Very often, however, the man who 
is considered an authority on the subject, possesses very little real 
knowledge, but instead, through pure "gall" and "nerve," takes 
chances and either comes out on top or manages to cover up his 
mistakes. Beware of such men ; they are responsible for more 
bad work in the shop than any others. 

First and foremost, the effect of annealing on steel which is 



96 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

desired to be afterward hardened must be understood and appre- 
ciated. First, the anneahng process softens and allows the steel 
to be worked into shape with ease. Second, it removes all strains 
sustained in the manufacture, such as rolling, hammering and 
forging. Thus experience teaches that it is necessary to anneal 
any odd shaped piece after all the surface scale has been removed 
and the piece roughed down. 

Different Quenching Baths — Their Effect on Steel. 

As, next to proper heating, more depends upon the quenching 

than anything else, it follovv^s that the effects of the use of the 

various kinds of baths are required to be understood. The most 

generally used bath is usually cold water, though not infrequently 




FIG. 58. — SCREW MACHINE SPRING THREADING DIES. 

-salt is added or a strong brine is used. The following will be 
found to answer well for the work mentioned : For very thin and 
delicate parts, an oil bath should be used for quenching. For 
small parts which are required to be very hard, a solution composed 
of about a pound of citric acid crystals dissolved in a gallon of 
water will do. For hardening springs, sperm oil ; and for cutting 
tools, raw linseed oil will prove excellent. 

Boiled water has often proved the only bath to give good 
results in a large variety of work, the parts requiring hardening 
being heated in a closed box or tube to a low red heat and then 
quenched. Sometimes the water should be boiling, at others quite 
hot, and then again lukewarm. Experience will teach the operator 



THE HARDENING OF STEEL. 



97 



■which is the best for special work. If a cutting tool such as a 
hollow mill, a spring threading die or a similar tool is to be hard- 
ened in a bath of this sort dip it with the hole up or the steam will 
prevent the Uquid from entering the hole and leave the walls 
soft. A tendency to crack will also prevail if this is not done. 
The generation of steam must be considered when hardening 
work with holes or depressions in it, and attention must be paid 
to the dipping of the part so as to prevent the steam from crowd- 
ing the water away. Clean water steams rapidly, while brine 
and the different acid solutions do not. 

General Rules and Directions for the Hardening of Steel. 

The effect of heat on steel is to expand it, even or uneven 
•expansion depending upon the care and throughness of the heat- 
ing operation. Thus if one part of a piece is heated quicker or 
hugher than another the expansion is uneven, and the shape of the 
part changes to accommodate the local expansion. The conse- 
quence is that distortion takes place and remains permanent. 
In machine parts which have been finished and fitted or in any 
part which it is not practicable to grind afterward, the distor- 
tion often prevents the use of the piece, especially is this so in 
"tools. 

Distortion Through Uneven Heating. 

We will suppose, for instance, that a part with a thin side or 
•edge such as the cutter blade of the thread tool shown in Fig. 
59, is to be hardened. To do this successfully the thin parts 
must be handled or manipulated in the fire so that the frail side 




Pig. 59. — PATENT THREAD TOOL AND PARTS. 



98 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

will not reach the hardening heat before the rest of the body of 
the piece, or it will become warped or distorted, this coming 
about, not through the difference of temperature of the various 
parts as some imagine, but, instead, through the more solid parts 
being too strong to permit expansion, and when expansion is at 
last accommodated it has been at the expense of the frailer part 
of the metal. From this it must not be inferred that the part 
having the smallest sectional area is the weaker while being 
heated, but instead that it is as strong as the rest except when 
at the same temperature. The following extracts from an article 
by the late Joshua Rose, M.E., in an early number of the 
Scientific American Supplement, explains this in a manner which 
leaves nothing to be desired : 

"For example, suppose we have an eccentric ring, say ^ inch 



FIG. 60. — SPECIAL ROUGHING TURRET REAMER. 

thicker on one side than the other, and heat it midway between 
the thick and thin sides to a cherry red ; while those sides are 
barely red-hot, the part heated to cherry red will be the weakest, 
and will give way most to accommodate the expansion, because the 
strength due to its sectional area has been more than compen- 
sated for by the reduction of strength due to its increased tem- 
perature. The necessity of heating an article according to its 
shape then becomes apparent, and it follows that the aim should 
be to heat the article evenly all over, taking care specially that 
the thin parts shall not get hot first. ... If the article is 
large enough, the thin part may be covered, or partially so, dur- 
ing the first of the heating by wet ashes. If, however, the article 
is of equal sectional area all over, it is necessary to so turn it in 
the fire as to heat it uniformly all over; and in either case care 



THE HARDENING OF STEEL. 99 

should be taken not to heat the steel too quickly, unless, indeed, 
it is desirable to leave the middle somewhat softer than the out- 
side, so as to have the outside fully hardened and the inside some- 
what soft, which will leave the steel stronger than if hardened 
ecjually all through. Sometimes the outside of an article is heated 
more than the inside, so as to modify the tendency to crack from 
the contraction during the quenching, for to what degree the 
article expands during the heating, it must contract during the 



e» 



FIG. 6i. — turre;t tap. 

cooling. Whether the heating be done in the open fire or in a 
heating mixture, it must be done uniformly, so that it may be 
often necessary to hold the article for a time with the thick part 
only in the melted lead or other heating material ; but in this 
case it must not be held quite still, but raised and lowered gradu- 
ally and continuously to insure even heating. 

The Hardening Fire and the Heat. 
"The size of an article will often be an important element 
for consideration in heating it, because, by heating steel in the 
open fire, it becomes decarbonized ; and it follows that the smaller 
the article in sectional area the more rapidly this decarbonization 
takes place. In large bodies of metal, the decarbonization due 
to a single heating is not sufficient to have much practical sig- 
nificance; but if the tool requires frequent renewal by forging, 
the constant reheating will seriously impair its value ; and in 
any event it is an advantage to maintain the quality of the steel 
at its maximum. To prevent decarbonization for ordinary work 
charcoal instead of coal is sometimes used ; and where hardening 
is not done continuously it is a good practice, because a few pieces 



lOO HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

of charcoal can be thrown upon the fire and be ready for use on 
a few minutes' notice. Charcoal should be used for the heating 
ior the forging as well as for that for the hardening. Green 
coal should ncA^er be used for heating the steel for the hardening, 
even if it is for the forging process ; because, while the steel is 
being well forged, its quality is maintained, but afterward the 
-deterioration due to heating is much more rapid. A coke suitable 
for hardening should be made and always kept on hand. To 
obtain such a coke make a large fire of small soft coal well wetted 
and banked up upon the fire ; and with a round bar make holes for 
the blast to come through. When the gas is out of the interior 
coal, and the outside is well caked, it may be broken up with a 
bar, so that the gas may be burnt out of the outside, and then 
the blast may be stopped and the coke placed ready for use at a 
moment's notice. Good blacksmiths always keep a store of this 
coke for use in making welding heats as well as for hardening 
processes. . . . If an article has a very weak part, it is neces- 
sary to avoid resting that part upon the coal or charcoal of the 
fire ; otherwise the weight may bend it, and in heating long slen- 
der pieces they should bed evenly in the fire or furnace, or, when 
red hot, the unsupported parts will sag. In taking such pieces 
from the fire, the object is to lift the edges vertically so that the 
lifting shall not bend them ; and this requires considerable skill, 
because it must be done quickly, or parts will become cooled 
and will warp, as well as not harden so much as the hotter 
parts. 

Quenching for Hardening. 
"We now come to the cooling or quenching, which requires 




FIG. 62. — MILLING CrTTER. 



THE HARDENING OF STEEL. 



lOI 



as much skill as the heating to prevent warping and cracking, 
and to straighten the article as much as possible during the cool- 
ing process. The cooling should be performed with the view to 
prevent the contraction of the metal from warping the weaker 
parts ; and to aid this, in cutters of the type shown in Fig. 
62, tooth parts are sometimes made a little hotter than «he 
more solid parts of the article, the extra heat required 
to be extracted compensating in some degree for the di- 
minution of the sectional area from which the heat must be 
extracted. Water for cooling must be kept clean, and in that 



^^^^ 


SHANK 


1 strugftt I 


TIPW 


! 


RESMER 


s 


H^H 


^■^Ib^H 






iSJiil 


Hiilii 


M 


L ^ i 




f »»»V»»V»T»»»»V7S 


fV»»»»».»»»».»»"»"=""-- 


: 




^^ 


r * I 




C ^j-. 








''S 



FIG. 63. — STAY BOLT TAP. 

case becomes better from use. It may be kept heated to about 
100 deg. F., which will diminish the risk of having the article 
crack; any corners should be made as rounded as possible. If 
the water is very cold, and the heat hence extracted very rapidly 
from the outside, the liability to crack is increased ; and in many 
cases the water is heated to nearly the boiling point, so as to 
retard the extraction of the heat. Since, however, the hardening 
of the steel is due to the rapid extraction of its heat, increasing 
the temperature of the water diminishes the hardness of the 




FIG. 64. — SPIRAL LIPPED REAMER. 



steel, and it is necessary to counteract this effect as far as possi- 
ble, which is done by adding salt to the water. . . . All arti- 
cles that are straight or of the proper form while leaving the 
fire should be dipped vertically and lowered steadily into the 
water ; and if of weak section or liable to crack or warp, they 
should be held, quite still, low down in the water until cooled 
quite through to the temperature of the water. If the article 
is taken from the water too soon, it will crack, and this is a 
common occurrence, the cracking often being accompanied by a 



I02 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



sharp, audible "click." Pieces of blade form sBoiild be dipped 
edgeways, the length of the article lying horizontally and the 
article lowered vertically and held quite still, because, by mov- 
ing it laterally, the advancing side becomes cooled the quickest, 
and warping and cracking may ensue. Straight cylindrical pieces 




Sellers Hob. 



Short Shank Hob 
for Sizing Dies. 



X,ong Taper Die Tap 
for Cutting Solid Dies. 



FIG. 65. — HOBS OR MASTER TAPS. 



THE HARDENING OF STEEL. IO3 

are dipped endwise and vertically. When, however, the dipping 
process is performed with a view to leave a sufficient heat in the 
body of the article to draw to a lower temper the part dipped, 
the method of proceeding is slightly varied." 

The Hardening of Long Slender Tools. 

In order to harden long slender tools, such as stay-bolt taps, 
"hob" taps and long, taper die taps, for instance, so as to not 
require subsequent straightening or grinding, care is necessary in 
the machining as well as the hardening operations. It is not de- 
sirable to use the highest carbon steel when a large tool is to be 
made if the hardening method given below is to be used. 

Have the stock for the tool about ]4, inch larger than the 
finish diameter and rough down to within 1-16 inch of size. Then 
pack in an iron box in powdered charcoal and reheat, heating 
to a red and being sure to heat evenly and slowly. This will re- 
move all strains which may have taken place in the steel during 
the manufacture. The slower the steel cools the better will be 
the results in the hardening, as it may be heated to a lower heat 
which will have a tendency to refine it. 

Sometimes when the rough-down blanks for long tools have 
been annealed by the method described above, upon taking them 
from the annealing box some will be found to have sprung. When 
this occurs do not attempt to straighten while cool, but instead, 
if possible, turn the bulge out. If this cannot be done, heat to a 
cherry red and straighten while hot and re-anneal. After finish- 
ing, test the tool for trueness, and then harden as follows : 

Have a box large enough to allow the tools to stand upright 
and to leave lots of space for packing at the top, bottom and sides. 
Pack the packing material around tightly, put the lid on the box 
and heat thoroughly through, testing for heat with test rods, and 
when the proper heat is obtained hold it for a few hours, then 
remove the box and draw the tools carefully from the pack with 
a pair of tongs and quench in a bath of raw linseed oil which 
may be kept at a sufficient low temperature by some simple cool- 
ing arrangement. 

When dipping the heated tools quench straight down into the 
center of the oil and move vertically until a black appears, when 
they may be moved to the edge of the bath tank. In an oil bath 
the contents should be agitated so that the oil will circulate and 
flow toward the center, thus keeping the vapor generated by con- 



I04 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



tact of the heated steel and oil away from the work. By doing" 
this there will be no soft spots in the work when hardened. 

Hardening Small Parts and Long Thin Parts. 
When a large number of very small parts, such as cutter 
blades of the type shown in Fig. 66, are to be hardened they 




FIG. 66. — PATENT SQUARE THREADING TOOI.. 

should be packed in closed iron boxes, and the box heated.. 
When all the parts have reached the proper heat, they should be 
dumped into the quenching bath, of either oil or water, as the 
nature of the work may require. Another way by which small 
parts may be heated uniform is by means of a lead bath. Keep- 




PIG. 67. — COMBINED DRILL AND COUNTERSINK. 

the lead at the proper heat and cover the top with powdered char- 
coal and coke. 

Very small tools, such as small piercing punches, etc., should 
be hardened in an oil bath or in luke warm water, as if cold 
water is used they will cool too quickly and come out of the bath 
cracked or so brittle as to be useless. Never heat a piece of steel 
for hardening hot enough to ra-se scale on it ; even when it is- 



THE HARDENING OF STEEL. 



105, 



a very large piece this can be overcome by heating very slowly 
in a packing box. When steel has been heated too hot and then 
quenched, the grain is rendered coarse and brittle, and, although 
it may be drawn to the desired temper, it will break quicker than 




FIG. 68. — TWIST DRILL. 



a piece which has been hardened at a very low heat and not tem- 
pered at all, although the piece which was heated too hot and 
hardened and drawn will be softer than the other piece. 

When hardening long, flat or round objects they should be 




FIG. 69. — TWIST DRILL. 

dipped endwise, holding them perpendicular with the surface of 
the bath. When this is done the articles will come out perfectly 
straight, or at least very little sprung. When dipped otherwise 
such tools will warp. When dipping a half-round tool dip it with 




FIG. 70. — TURRFT REAMFR FOR FINISHING. 

the half-round side at an angle of about twenty degrees with the 
surface of the water and it will come out either almost straight, 
or straight. 



I06 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Hardening in Solutions. 

In order to harden a large number of steel tools or pieces so 
that uniform hardness and temper will be attained, and so that 
the steel will come out of the process white and clean, as is often 
required, the following process may be adopted : First, in the 
heating of the steel, a solution which will project it from the 
fire and another to chill it quickly are necessary. This last 
solution will also give the desired clean white appearance to the 
steel. The receipt for this first solution is, equal quantities of sal- 
soda and borax in water containing one ounce of cyanide of 
potassium to the gallon. For the second solution, a strong brine 
made of salt and water, and about the same amount of cyanide 
as salt, will do. Have the water hot and add about two ounces 
of sulphuric acid to each gallon of water used ; when mixed, put 
away in a cool place and keep well covered. 

To use the solutions proceed as follows : Fill all holes near 
the edge of the steel with fireclay; then dip into the first solution 
and place the steel immediately on the fire while wet. Heat 
slowly and carefully and be sure not to heat any one portion of 
the work faster than another, as the slower the heat the more 
uniform its distribution in the piece. When the proper tempera- 
ture has been reached, which should be a clear bright red, dip 
the work straight down into the hardening solution ; when it 
has cooled, remove from the bath, and work of silvery whiteness 
and uniform hardness will be the result. When heating long 
slender pieces in this solution, dip them endwise, and do not shake 
about, but instead, revolve, if possible, rapidly. 

Heating in Hot Lead for Hardening. 

There is a large class of work which can be best heated for 
hardening in red-hot lead. It is a very rapid and satisfactory 
method for such tools as small counter-bores, reamers, shank, 
mills, knurls and parts such as bicycle cones, balls, cups, and sew- 
ing machine and typewriter parts. What makes the lead par- 
ticularly valuable for heating such parts is that a uniform heat 
can be applied without danger of burning or scaling the inside be- 
fore the center is heated. 

When heating in lead a graphite crucible placed so that a 
uniform heat will be maintained beneath and around the pot will 
prove the best. As to the lead to use, care must be taken to get 
a brand with as little sulphur in it as possible. Never use scrap 



THE HARDENING OF STEEL. 



107 



lead, as it will ruin the steel. Chemically pure lead should always 
be used. 

There are a great many compounds in use to prevent the lead 
from sticking to the work. One of the best is the following : One 
pound of powdered cyanide dissolved in one gallon of boiling 




FIG. 71. — HEAVY KNURIvS. 

water ; allow to cool, and then dip the articles to be heated in the 
solution; remove and allow to dry thoroughly before putting 
them into the lead. Moisture will make the lead fly. 

Small articles of an even size and thickness throughout can 
be put into the lead cold, while irregular pieces must be heated 




FIG. 72. — DOUBIvE KNURLING TOOL. 

nearly red before putting into the lead in order to prevent un- 
equal expansion. 

By keeping the surface of the lead covered with broken char- 
coal, drops will be prevented from forming. After the heating 
has been concluded empty the crucible. 



Io8 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

To get good results when hardening by heating in lead, stir 
the liquid occasionally so as to equalize the heat, as the bottom, 
will always be hotter than the top. When tools or parts with 
fine projections or teeth are heated, take a stiff brush and clean 
off any particles of lead which may stick in them before quench- 
ing. This is necessary as steel will not harden when lead has 
stuck to it, as the spots do not come in contact with the bath. 

Hardening Metal Saws. 
To harden metal saws or articles of a similar nature, provide 
a pair of flat cast-iron plates and oil the faces well with a heavy 
oil. Heat the saws in a box or some other arrangement which 
will prevent the fire from coming in contact with them (a flat 
plate will do) and prevent the article from warping during the 



^-.■r^T^i 




I^IG. 72,. — METAL SAW. 

heating process. When heated to a bright red remove the article 
and place it on the lower oiled plate and drop the other plate on 
it quickly, and hold it down until the article is cold. If a pair 
of hinged plates are used one man can do the job; if not, two 
will be required. 

Mixture to Prevent Lead from Sticking. 
The formula here given is taken from the report of the Chief 
of Ordnance of the United States War Department, and is used 
when hardening files, and has also given good results when hard- 
ening small taps, milling cutters, reamers, broaches, rotary files 
and similar tools having fine teeth. The following is a copy o£ 
the report : 



THE HARDENING OF STEEL. IO9 

"Before hardening-, the files are treated with a mixture of salt 
■and carbonaceous materials to protect the teeth from decarboniza- 
"tion and oxidation. The kinds and proportions of the ingredients 
are given in the following table : 

"Pulverized and charred leather i pound. 

"Fine family flour ij^ pounds. 

"Fine table salt 2 pounds. 

"The charcoal made from charred leather should be triturated 
until fine enough to pass through a No. 45 sieve. 

"The three ingredients are thoroughly mixed and incorporated 
while in a dry state and water is then added slowly to prevent 
lumps, until paste formed has the consistency of ordinary varnish. 
When ready the paste is applied to the file- with a brush, care 
heing taken to have the teeth well filled with the mixture. The 
surplus paste is then wiped off the file by the brush and the file 
is placed on end before a slow fire to dry. If dried too quickly, 
the paste will crack or blister ; if not dried enough, the remain- 
ing moisture will be transformed into steam when dipped into 
the heated lead bath and cause an ebullition or sputtering of the 
lead, throwing out minute globules of the latter which may en- 
danger the eyes of the operator. The fusing of the paste upon 
the surface of the file indicates the proper heat at which the file 
should be hardened." 

Hardening Long Taper Reamers. 

The hardening of long taper reamers of small diameter, so 
ras to prevent them from coming through curved or twisted, is one 
•of the most difficult operations for the hardener, and we can only 
advise the necessary precautions used by those who succeed with 
such work. The steel should be annealed a second time before 
the finishing cut is taken, by heating slowly in a low fire by pack- 
ing it in an iron box or tube with powdered charcoal, fine sand, 
or clean ashes ; then finished. The heating for hardening should 
be done in the same manner as the re-annealing. When the box 
and reamer have been heated thoroughly to a bright cherry red the 
reamers should be carefully drawn out endwise, so as to prevent 
the possibility of bending while hot ; and immediately quenched 
"vertically in an oil bath. Any variation from a vertical position 
"while dipping is liable to warp the work, through one side cool- 



no HARDENING;, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

ing faster than the other. In drawing temper, care should be 
taken to heat evenly on all sides, so as to bring them to the same 
straw color, brown or light blue, according to whatever use the 
tool is to be put. Long delicate reamers should always be ground 
to size after the hardening and tempering operations. 

The Use of Clay in Hardening. 

Very often in die and tool work it is desired that a piece with 
a hole in the center should be hard around the outside and soft 
around the hole, or a punch is required to be hard at both ends 
and soft in the center. To accomplish these results with ease 
use clay in the following manner : When the stock around the 
hole is to be left soft and the outer edges of the piece hardened, 
fill the hole with clay and pad it at both sides, then heat the piece 
and plunge it into the water. When cool, remove the clay and 
the stock around the hole will be^found to be soft while the edges 
will be as hard as required. To harden both ends of the punch 
and leave the center soft, put a bandage of clay around the center, 
or desired soft portion, about ^ of an inch thick and bind it 
with a piece of thin sheet metal. Heat and quench, and the de- 
sired result will be accomplished. 

When hardening dies or other press tools in which there are 
holes near the edges of the work, fill the holes with clay before 
heating and the tendency to crack will be overcome. When the 
holes are not filled with clay (when the steel is quenched) steam 
generates in the holes and cracks start, or excessive warping oc- 
curs, due to the fact that the steam does not escape fast enough 
and the contracting of the metal is unequal. 

Special Instructions for Hardening and Tempering. 

Often when tool steel is brought, special instructions will be 
given as to the method of hardening and tempering it. Some- 
times these instructions are followed out and oftener they are 
not. Now in all cases when such instructions are given, don't 
forget to go by them, otherwise do not buy that brand of steel, 
but instead secure a brand which you can harden as you think 
best. There are various brands of steel on the market which are 
used for a number of special purposes and which possess qualities 
which other brands do not (in regard to cutting at h^gh speeds, 
removing large amounts of stock, etc.) which require hardening 




THE HARDENING OF STEEL. Ill 

at different temperatures and tempering at special colors. If you 
require this sort of steel for any special purpose, don't try to find 
out why the special instructions are given, but do as directed, and 
if the results are what the makers claim for it, it does not make 
any difference if you have to harden it in a cake of soap — the 
result is the thing. 

Hardening and Tempering Round Thread Dies. 

A good way to harden and temper round thread dies of the 
type shown in Fig. 74 is to proceed as follows : The die after 
having been drilled, worked, filed, etc., 
should be split at D, leaving about 1-32 inch 
of wall as shown. Heat carefully and 
quench in water bath, after which polish the 
sides. To temper use the lead bath. Enter 
the die into the bath edgeways up to about 
the dotted line shown in Fig. 74. After 
holding it in the bath for about a minute re- fig. 74 — thread die. 
move and examine. If the heating has been 

done correctly the part A will have turned blue while the point 
E will not be drawn at all. Treat B likewise, and in turn C and D. 
When this is done properly there will be sufficient heat contained 
in the outer portion to gradually draw and temper the point E, 
which may be anything from a light yellow to a dark yellow, as 
the case may require. In the tempering, a few drops of lard oil 
on the teeth at intervals when required will check the temper 
and prevent it from running out further at one point than an- 
other. A little practice will teach the operator how much heat 
to subject the outside portion of the die to so as to allow of all the 
point E coming to the same temper. 

After the tempering process the die may be repolished and 
then the wall left at D removed by grinding with a thin emery 
wheel, or by entering a small narrow face set and hitting it a 
sharp blow, when the wall will break out. The reason for leaving 
the thin wall at D is to hold the ends firm while hardening, 
thus preventing excessive shrinking and warping. Split bush- 
ings may be hardened in the same manner. 

Hardening Bushings, Shell Reamers, Hobs, Etc. 
A device useful in the hardening of bushings, shell reamers, 



112 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




fig. 75- — usefui, 
:eardening device. 



hobs, etc., is shown in Fig. 75, and consists 
of a piece of drill rod, R, threaded about an 
inch longer than the length of the article to 
be hardened, and nut and washer located as 
shown. The dotted lines show the work to 
be hardened, AAAA, asbestos washers, BB, 
common iron washers, the whole being held 
together between the two nuts. Heat the 
entire arrangement to the proper tempera- 
ture and quench in water in the usual man- 
ner. By using a device of this sort an up- 
ward flow of water through the article is 
prevented, as is the consequent sudden chill, 
thus eliminating to a certain extent the tend- 
ency to warp or crack. In such tools in 
which the outside only is desired to be hard- 
ened, the method is an excellent one, as the 
inside will remain comparatively soft, unless 
very thin, when it will harden clear through. 




Hardening and Tempering Collet Spring Chucks. 
The following kink we have found very handy when making 
collet spring chucks of the shape shown in Fig. 76. After finish- 
ing them in the lathe, leaving, of 
■course, enough stock to lap and 
grind to a finish, face them on an 
arbor and saw the spring slots as 
shown; that is, at the end of each 
slot, as shown at T and V. In- 
stead of cutting completely through 
at this point, leave a very thin wall 
about ys inch long at the end of 

the cuts. Then harden and temper the chucks as desired, and 
after lapping the inside to size, place on an arbor and grind the 
tapers as required ; then take a small, narrow broach and by 
•entering it into the slots and hitting it a sharp blow with a ham- 
mer the thin wall will break through. This kink I have used 
to the best advantage in shops which had no grinding facilities. 
When proceeding as aforesaid it was possible to finish the outside 
and taper to size before hardening without the possibility of the 
chucks running out to any noticeable extent. Of course for 



EIG. 76. — SMALL COLLET 
SPRING CHUCK. 



THE HARDENING OF STEEL. II3 

work of the utmost accuracy this method would not do. But 
then again work of the utmost accuracy is not accomplished in 
shops where the tool facilities are not up to date. 

The Taylor-White Process for Treating Steel. 

In the September, 1901, number of the Journal of the Franklin 
Institute was published a paper by Charles Day upon the Taylor- 
White process for treating tool steel, and the results obtained 
with steel so treated, at the works of the Link Belt Engineering 
Company, Philadelphia, Pa. When this process was first an- 
nounced facts were given and quoted reports of tests made at the 
works of the Bethlehem Steel Company, Bethlehem, Pa., where 
the process was developed by Messrs. Taylor and White. The 
paper by Mr. Day gives information upon air hardening steels in 
general before reverting to the subject of steel treated by the 
Taylor-White process. 

Mr. Day says that air-hardening steels have unquestionably 
replaced the carbon variety for roughing work, the efficiency of 
the former ranging from one and one-half to twice that of the 
latter. This gain is because air-hardening steels hold their cut- 
ting edge at much higher temperatures than carbon steels and 
consequently can be worked at proportionately greater cutting 
speeds. The usual method of hardening air-hardening steels is 
well known, manufacturers usually placing a great stress on the 
fact that the tool must be heated over a cherry red, otherwise it 
will be burned and so ruined. The object of Messrs. Taylor and 
White was to obtain some exact knowledge on this matter, and 
extensive experirnents were conducted in the belief that a tool 
steel could be produced to give still better results than those 
already obtained. 

The new process depends upon the fact that although both 
carbon and air-hardening steels deteriorate rapidly when the tem- 
perature rises above a cherry red, there are some chemical com- 
positions that may be used for air-hardening steels which are 
much improved as cutting tools if they are raised to a higher 
temperature in the hardening process. Their maximum efficiency 
is reached when the steel is heated to a point where it crumbles 
when tapped with a rod. The point to which air-hardening steel 
was formerly heated in the process of hardening is between 1,500 
and 1,600 deg. F., and is called the breaking-down point. Steel 
having the new treatment is heated to 2,000 deg. F. The com- 



114 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

position found to give the best results consists of an air-harden- 
ing steel containing about i per cent of chromium and 4 per cent 
of tungsten ; while for very hard metals, such as the chilled scale 
on cast-iron, etc., 3 per cent of chromium and 6 or more per cent 
of tungsten are good. The variation in carbon seems to matter 
but little, steel varying from 85 to 200 points giving equally good 
results. 

The tool is cooled rapidly from the "high heat" (2,000 de- 
grees) to a point below the breaking-down temperature, in a lead 
bath, arid then slowly in the air, or lime, etc., as the case may be. 
It is essential that at no time the temperature should rise, as in 
such a case the tool would be seriously impaired. After the 
steel has cooled off, its efficiency is found to be further increased 
by subjecting it to what is termed the "low heat" for about ten 
minutes; this temperature raiiging from 700 deg. to 1,240 deg. 
F. After cooling from the "low heat" the tool is ready for use. 
It is not essential to anneal the steel when reforging and the tools 
can be worked with comparative ease. 

In the operation of the Taylor-White process apparatus is 
employed by means of which temperature can be controlled within 
very narrow limits, which accounts for the uniformity of results 
obtained with the tools treated by this process. 

About 97 per cent of the material worked upon at the shops of 
the Link Belt Engineering Company is cast-iron. In order to 
make a rough test on cast-iron one tool was obtained from Bethle- 
hem and put to work on a 7-foot boring mill turning the inside 
of a cast-iron ring. The time required to do this work with their 
old tools had been determined many times in setting piece rates, 
and was about fourteen hours. With the Taylor-White tool the 
time was reduced to three and one-half hours, and a gain of 75 
per cent made. While steel used heretofore was not the best ob- 
tainable, and was probably not worked to its highest efficiency, 
there was, nevertheless, a large saving due to the new steel. 

Some interesting data was also obtained from an order of 
rope sheaves, the time required on similar work having been tabu- 
lated for several years. The average time required to machine 
thirteen sheaves with the old tools was nine and one-half hours ; 
the same for sixteen similar sheaves, the roughing being done by 
Taylor- White tools, was five hours and five minutes, or a saving 
of 465^ per cent. 

Assuming, however, the time for setting up, forming, boring 



THE HARDENING OF STEEL. II5 

and polishing the same when the sheaves were finished with old 
tools as with the treated tools, since the latter are not suitable for 
cutting finishing cuts, the time for roughing would have been 
7.85 hours and a saving of 56.3 per cent was made in operations 
where it was possible to use treated tools. 

In order to obtain some data with regard to pressure on the 
points of tools for given depth of cuts, feed, etc., and at the 
same time to show the effect of the treatment, a cast-iron ring 
six and one-half feet in diameter was bolted to the table of a 
seven-foot mill. The first .tool used was one treated for hard 
material. It cut 106 pounds of metal in 10 minutes, and when 
removed was in perfect condition. A "Mushet" tool under the 
same condition last<^,d but one minute, and removed 5J^ pounds 
of metal. The actual pressure against the tool in each case ex- 
ceeded 3^4 tons, while the pressure per square inch with another 
self-hardening tool was 143,000 pounds. 

Eighteen months ago a 50 horse power engine supplied the 
power for about 40 machine tools in the Link Belt Engineering 
Company's works, and also run the pattern shop and grinding 
room. The actual horse power developed had been found to 
average 45. Of this 27 horse power was consumed by the shaft- 
ing, leaving but 18 horse power for actual work. After the new 
tools were in general use and the machine pushed to obtain the de- 
sired results, it became apparent that the power was absolutely in- 
adequate; indicator cards from the engine frequently showed 
an overload of 60 per cent, and at this point it was found essen- 
tial to put motors on some of the larger tools. 

The following particulars about the process have been fur- 
nished by the Bethlehem Steel Company: 

"The practical speeds at which these tools will run has been 
found to be from two to four times that of any steels which we 
have experimented with, and we have endeavored to obtain the 
"best in the market. 

"The process, which is applied after the tool has been dressed 
or machined to shape, penetrates to the center of the steel, even 
in the largest tools we have ever treated, i. e., 4 inches square. All 
of the standard brands of self-hardening steel which have been 
experimented with are improved to a more or less extent by the 
treatment ; it is preferred, however, to use a steel of special com- 
position in order to get the greatest uniformity and maximum re- 
sults. This special steel forges so much more readily than the 



Il6 HARDENING. TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

general nin of self -hardening steels that tools of different shapes 
may be easily made up. 

"W'e have also discovered a simple and comparatively rapid 
method of annealing of special steel, by which tools may be easily 
machined to shape, making it applicable to twist drills, chasers, 
inserted cutters, etc., which have theretofore not been made from 
self-hardening steel. 

"A great advantage in the use of these tools is that when cut- 
ting dry at the rate of maximum efficiency the chips should come 
off blue. These blue chips enable a foreman at a glance to tell 
whether the work is being done at the proper speed when running 
under water at the proper cutting and allowing the tool to cut 
dr\- for a few moments. 

"The apparatus used in the Taylor-White process offers also 
a simple and effective means of heating any other tools at uniform- 
it}' and higher qualities in this class of steel, as well as self-hard- 
ening steel. 

"As is well known, tempering steels of different makes and 
different qualities require different temperatures for hardening 
to obtain the best results ; therefore, by means of our apparatus, 
which is capable of closely controlling temperature, these points 
may be accurately determined for each class of steel, and made 
use of in daily practice. The operation of the process is ex- 
tremely simple, as it is controlled by apparatus which regulates 
the different steps, and does not require skill or expert labor."' 



CHAPTER V. 

TEMPERING BY COLORS — IN OIL — ON HOT PLATES — BY THERMOM- 
ETER IN HOT WATER IN THE SAND BATH BY 

SPECIAL METHODS. 

Tempering. 

In the term "tempering" we include all processes which tend to 
reduce the hardness of steel to a degree recognized inside the 
color test by color, and also all processes by which the degree of 
hardness is lowered, modified, tempered, or lessened. It is wrong 
to apply the term "temper" to processes which at one operation 
leave the steel harder than any degree of the color test ; a process 
which does not reduce the hardness of steel to a degree denoted 
by some color in the color test should be termed hardening. 

If instead of the color, in tempering, the degree of temperature 
required were given, the process would be very much simplified. 
Thus 430 degrees would denote the same degree of hardness as a 
faint yellow and all degrees of hardness above that would have 
to be specified in less temperature, while all degrees of softness 
down to a blue tinged with green would be included in degrees 
of temperature up to 630. The degrees of softness below that 
denoted by color test or thermometer are : bright red in the dark, 
720 degrees ; red hot in twilight, 884 degrees, and red visible by 
day, 1,077 degrees. The degrees of softness below them are indis- 
tinguishable by the test ; they remain unknown quantities of de- 
grees, and are only indicated by the ease with which the metal 
can be machined. 

The universal adoption of thermometer test for tempering will 
remove the technical objection to the color test, i. e., that the 
color obtained on the piece of steel through heat is no indication 
that the steel possesses apy above its natural degree of hardness ; 
as steel, wrought iron and cast iron will assume, when polished 
and heated to the necessary degree of temperature, all the colors 
of the test. Thus the color on a piece of steel is simply an indi- 
cation that it has been heated to a certain degree, not that it is 
tempered, or in fact that the heating process has in any way 
changed the degree of hardness or softness. 



Il8 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Tempering when done by a second operation modifies the 
hardness imparted to the steel by the first one and depends for its 
uniformity upon the uniformity of the first process. For instance, 
if a number of pieces of steel of uniform grade are heated to the 
same degree of temperature, and quenched in water until cold, 
then removed, then tempered to the same color, they will of course 
be possessed of an equal degree of hardness ; but if other pieces 
of steel of a different carbon percentage are subjected to exactly 
the same process in all its details, leaving upon them the same 
temper color, they will not possess the same degree of hardness 
as those of the first lot. From this we learn that temper colors 
may be proof of equality in the degree of temper in pieces of the 
same steel, but the same is not indicative of any uniform degree 
of hardness in diflferent steels. 

In the hardening of inexpensive cutting tools the above facts 
make very little difference, as for such tools special brands of steel 
are procurable which will harden sufficiently to give accuracy to 
the color test of tempering, when heated to any degree of heat from 
a blood red to a yellow red ; the difference in hardness in the 
steel when quenched at either degrees of heat being too small 
to entitle them to consideration in tools which are inexpensive to 
make. 

In the tempering of special tools the exact degree of temper 
which experiment has determined must be given. A tool user 
knows that in the shade of yellow in the color test alone enter over 
a range of 70 degrees, and that within these 70 degrees lies a wide 
range of hardness. It is much better to adopt a tempering process 
that will determine with accuracy the first heating temperature, 
as, for instance, the heating of a tool in melted lead, melted salt, 
or melted glass and then quenching it into a cooling bath the tem- 
perature of which may be maintained by suitable means, and then 
drawing the temper in a bath of oil heated to and maintained at the 
degree of temperature required. When such methods are used, 
if the steel used is of a brand which experience in using has taught 
to be uniform, the greatest obtainable accurate degree of temper 
will be obtained in both the operations, and the tools will be hard- 
ened better and more reliable than could be obtained under the 
color test. 

In most establishments where large numbers of hardened tools 
or parts are required the methods described are in use ; but 
when the articles are large or only a few small parts at intervals 



TEMPERING. IIQ 

are required, it would not of course pay to keep the heating ar- 
rangements constantly ready. It is then that the open fire and the 
color test must be adopted. It is under the latter conditions that 
the skill, experience, and judgment of the hardener are called 
into use, as from the time the steel is put in the fire until it is 
quenched and tempered, upon him depends absolutely the entire 
success of the operations. 

Tempering in the Sand Bath. 
When a number of pieces of the same size or of slightly dif- 
ferent sizes have been hardened and it is desired to draw them 
all to the same temper, the sand bath will be found to give the 
most uniform results. This consists of an iron box filled with 
sand and heated over the fire or in a muffle to the temperature re- 
quired. When the sand has been heated to the required degree, 
the tools to be tempered are lowered into it and removed when 
the color denoting the temper required appears. 

The Effects of Slow Heating and Tempering. 
Always remember that the slower the temper is drawn, the 
tougher the steel will be. When steel is slowly heated in temper- 
ing and the heat is distributed equally over the entire piece, the 
molecules assume the most stable position with regard to each 
other, and when the tool is in use, all are alike affected by any 
shock sustained. The effects of heat on copper and bronze are 
exactly opposite to those manifested by steel, as when sUch metals 
are cooled slowly they become brittle and hard, but when cooled 
rapidly soft and malleable. 

Tempering in Oil. 
Almost all large shops in which any amount of hardening and 
tempering are done have discarded the method of tempering by 
colors and have adopted the more reliable methods of doing it in 
oil, gaging the heat by thermomenter. A kettle containing the oil 
i<5 placed on the fire and heated to the right temperature ; the 
hardened parts are thrown in and left in the liquid until drawn. 
By this method there is no possibility of overdrawing, as it is im- 
possible for the parts to become hotter than the oil. When tem- 
pering in this manner it is not necessary to brighten the work 
before the operation, and when a lot of such work is done it will 
be accomplished much cheaper than if the old method were used ; 
besides, the most satisfactory results will be attained. 



120 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Hardening and Tempering Springs. 
As very often springs are included in the constructions of 
fixtures, appliances, and machines, it is well to understand how to 
harden and temper them successfully. For small and medium- 
sized springs use a solution composed of one-half sperm oil, one- 
half neat's foot oil with an ounce of rosin, and the springs will 
come out of the bath tempered as desired. For heavy springs, 
which have to exert a great deal of pressure, use hot water. Have 
the water boiling and plunge the springs, when at the proper heat, 
into it. By adopting this method no burning off will be necessary, 
as the springs will be the proper temper. What is more, they will 
not break or "crawl up" when in use. 

Biasing Off Springs. 

To temper springs by "blazing off" use cottonseed oil. For 
some work, however, a mixture of this and fish oil will work bet- 
ter than either of the two oils alone. In doing this work experi- 
ments will determine just what oil or what proportion of a 
mixture of the two will contribute to attaining the best re- 
sults. 

Tempering Rock Drills in Crude Oil. 

For the tempering of rock drills crude oil will give the best re- 
sults, and by using it as a quenching bath even the amateur may 
temper steel to stand like an expert; This is so because when 
using oil a slight variation in temperature does not produce the 
effect on steel that water does. The experience with crude oil 




FIG. 77. — rock: DRILt STEEL. 

for the tempering of rock drills by one who understands the 
requirements of such work is of value and may cause its rriore 
extensive use. B. Hastings, in the Mining and Scientific Press, 
states : 

"It is a very rare thing for an oil-tempered drill to break, and 
it wears much better than a water-tempered one. The most 



TEMPERING. 121 

serviceable slack tub I found to be common five-gallon oil can, 
with the top left as a flap or cover to throw down and smother 
flame in case the oil ignites from the hot steel. If the vessel is 
left open the ignition, if it does occur, is of little consequence, 
like that of coal tar ; but with a partially closed tub or tank can, 
the accumulated gases are liable to produce 'fireworks,' as the 
writer can testify. There is really no necessity for such incon- 
venience, however, as the proper heat for plunging the steel — a 
bright red — is a little below the point necessary to flash the oil. 
I do not use more than five inches of oil in the bottom of the 
can. The hotter the oil becomes, the better are the results. The 
consumption of oil is small, principally due to that portion 
sticking to the drills on withdrawal. Plunging them in loose dirt 
afterward will clean them." 

Hardening and Tempering Mill Picks. 

Bath for Hardening. — Take 2 gallons rain-water, i ounce cor- 
rosive sublimate, 2 of sal-ammoniac, i of saltpeter, i^ pints of 
rock salt. The picks should be heated to a cherry red, and cooled 
in the bath. The salt gives hardness, and the other, ingredients 
toughness to the steel ; and they will not break, if they are left 
without drawing the temper. 

Composition for Tempering Cast-Steel Mill Picks. — To 3 
gallons of water add 3 ounces each nitric acid, spirits of hartshorn, 
sulphate of zinc, sal-ammoniac, and alum ; 6 ounces salt, with a 
double handful of hoof parings; the steel to be heated a dark 
cherry red. It must be kept corked tight to prevent evapora- 
tion. 

To Temper Picks. — After working the steel carefully, prepare 
a bath of lead heated to the boiling point, which will be indicated 
by a slight agitation of the surface. In it place the end of the 
pick to the depth of 1J/2 inches, until heated to the temperature 
required. The principal requisites in making mill picks are : First, 
get good steel. Second, work it at a low heat ; most blacksmiths 
injure steel by overheating. Third, heat for tempering with- 
out direct exposure to the fire. The lead bath acts merely as 
a superheater. 

Straightening Hardened Pieces Which Have Warped. 
When a piece of steel has been carefully heated and just as 
carefully quenched, there is little chance of its warping. But 



122 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

when a piece does warp, before it can be used for the purpose 
required, it must be straightened. To do this proceed as follows : 
Take two "V" blocks and place them on the bed of an arbor press 
or a straightening press — either one will do — and place the piece 
or tool on the "V" blocks with the concave side down. Then take 
a Bunsen burner, with a hose attached to it for the gas supply, 
and heat the concave side ; do this slowly, and do not heat hot 
enough to draw the temper. While the steel is hot apply sufficient 
pressure to spring the piece or tool back into shape. A large 
number of hardened pieces, which would otherwise prove useless, 
may be saved by straightening them in this manner. 

Tempering Thin Articles. 
Articles of thin material, like springs, which require a spring 
temper, are frequently treated by dipping in oil and then burning 
off the oil over the fire. Blacksmiths adopted this method in- 
stead of trying to temper by watching the color, as it is found 
that it subjects the piece to just about enough heat to produce 
the desired results. In the case of thicker pieces, however, like 
tools, it is much better to use the hot iron and watch the color. 
The temper can thus be drawn to just the point desired, and the 
steel will be tempered more uniformly both on the outside and in- 
side than when the other method is used. 

Tempering in the Charcoal Flame. 
A great many mechanics prefer to temper in a charcoal flame. 
To do this properly the thickest portion, or the part not requiring 
any temper, should be held in the flame ; and as it becomes heated, 
the tool should be wiped at intervals with an oily piece of 
waste. The oil will keep the temper even and prevent drawing 
more in one place than in another. In drawing the temper of any 
tool it should always be done slowly, as if it is done rapidly the 
temper is apt to run out before one is aware of it. 

Tempering Wood Planer Knives. 

The following extract from an article contributed to the 
"Woodworker" gives a practical method for tempering wood 
planer knives : 

"We have one batch of knives that will not hold an edge in 
oak unless drawn to a temperature of about 400 degrees, and as 
this shows a very indistinct color it is not easy to get without a 



TEMPERING. 1 23; 

thermometer. As these are 6, 8, and lo-inch knives, they cannot 
be hardened in water without a reasonable certainty of cracking: 
back the length of the bevel in one or more places ; and as oil will 
not carry off the heat fast enough to keep the body of the knives 
from drawing the edge, it promised a serious problem to solve. 
This was managed in the following manner, and after a few 
trials I was able to obtain the proper degree of hardness without 
drawing for temper at all. 

"Take a vessel of proper width to receive the length of knife^ 
put some water in the bottom and pour an inch of oil on top. 
Heat the edge of your knife an even cherry red back as far as 
you wish to harden it, and holding it level thrust the edge into 
the oil for a moment until the color leaves, then slowly let it down 
into the water. The oil cools without cracking, and the water 
prevents the heat in the body from drawing the edge. It is not 
necessary to harden all long knives in this manner, as the oil 
alone will produce a sufficient hardness in ordinary cases if a large 
enough body of oil is used and the edge of the knife is immersed 
with a stirring motion. . It can then be tempered to about 500 
degrees by the heat of the body of the knife and suddenly cooled 
in water at about 80 degrees. These long knives are pretty sure 
to warp some when tempering or hardening in this way, the back 
or soft steel side contracting more than the face. To straighten^ 
lay face down on an anvil and with a round-nosed machinist's 
hammer give a quick, sharp blow, distributed evenly between the 
back edge bevel and the line of front end of slots. Be careful 
to hammer directly over the spot resting on anvil or the knife 
will vibrate in the hand and the force of the blow will be diffused 
and lost. This gentle hammering stretches the back of the knife,, 
and when its length equals the face it will be straight." 

Tempering Swords and Cutlasses. 
The tempering of swords so that they will stand the United 
States government test may be accomplished by heating in a char- 
coal fire to a bright red and quenching in pure water, afterward 
drawing the temper in a charcoal flame. 

Drawing Polished Steel Articles to a Straw Color or Blue. 
The surface of polished steel articles will acquire a pale straw 
color at 460 degrees F., and a uniform deep blue at 580 degrees F. 
The other shades between these may be had at intermittent tem- 
peratures. 



124 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Tempering Solutions. 

1. Saltpeter, sal-ammoniac and alum, of each 2 ounces; salt, 
I J/2 pounds; soft water, 3 gallons. Never heat over cherry red; 
draw no temper. Sal-ammoniac and iron turnings or filings 
make good rust joints. 

2. To 6 quarts of soft water add i ounce of corrosive sublim- 
ate and two handfuls of common salt. When dissolved the mix- 
ture is ready for use. The first gives toughness, the latter hard- 
ness to the steel. Remember this is deadly poison. 

3. Water, 3 gallons ; salt, 2 quarts ; sal-ammoniac and salt- 
peter, of each 2 ounces ; ashes from white ash bark, i shovelful. 
The ashes cause the steel to scale white and smooth as silver. 
Do not hammer too coMr^ To avoid flaws do not heat too high, 
which opens the pores of the steel. If heated carefully you will 
get hardness, toughness and the finest quality. 

4. Salt, 4 ounces ; saltpeter, j^ ounce ; pulverized alum, i 
ounce to i gallon of soft water. Heat the articles to a cherry 
red, and quench, but do not draw temper. 

5. Saltpeter and alum, each 2 ounces ; sal-ammoniac, }4: ounce ; 
salt, iy2 ounces to 2 gallons of soft water. Heat parts to be 
tempered to a cherry red and quench. 

Tables of Colors^ Melting Points and Suitable Tempers for 

Given Tools. 
The following tables have been carefully arranged and will 
be found to be approximately correct : 

Melting Points of Solids. 

Deg. F. 

Aluminum i,i57 

Antimony from 811 to 1,150 

Bismuth from 476 to 512 

Copper from 1,929 to 1,996 

Lead from 608 to 618 

Mercury 39 

Tin •....• .from 44210 451 

Zinc from 680 to 779 

Wr't" 

Cast iron 2,477 

Gold 2,587 

Silver 1,250 

Steel , 2,501 

Glass 2,277 

Brass 1,897 



TEMPERING. 1 25 

Melting Points of Solids — Continued. 

Wr't" 

Platinum 3,077 

Cadmium 602 

Saltpetre 600 

Sulphur 225 

Potassium 135 

Table of Tempers to Which Tools Should be Drawn, Arranged 
Alphabetically. 

Tool. Color. Deg. of Tern. F. 

A 

Augers Light purple 530 

Axes Dark purple 550 

All cutting tools for soft material Very light yellow 420 

All hand taps and dies Straw yellow 460 

All kinds of hand reamers Straw yellow 460 

All percussion tools for metal Blue 549 

B 

Bone-cutting tools Very pale yellow 43a 

Boring cutters Straw yellow 460 

Butt mills for brass Very light yellow 420 

Burnishers Very light yellow 420 

Bending and forming dies Dark yellow 490 

c 

Chasers Straw yellow 460 

Coppersmiths' tools Light purple 530 

Cold chisels for steel Light purple 530 

Cold chisels for cast iron Dark purple 550 

Cold chisels for wrought iron Light purple 530 

Circular saws for nletal Light purple 539 

Cutting tools for iron Light yellow 440 

Collets Dark yellow 490 

Chuck jaws Dark yellow 490 

Chisel for wood Spotted red-brown 510 

Clutch bolts Very dark blue 601 

Cams with sharp corners Very dark blue 601 

Clutch springs Blue 549 

D 

Drifts Brown yellow 500 

Dental and surgical instruments Light purple 530 

Drawing mandrels Very light yellow 420 

Drills for brass Straw yellow 460 

E 

Edging cutters Light purple 530 

Embossing dies. Light yellow 440 



.126 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Table of Tempers to Which Tools Should be Drawn, Arranged 
Alphabetically- — Continued. 

Tool. Color. Deg. of Tem. F^ 

F 

Ji'lat drills for brass Brown yellow 500 

Flat drills for steel and iron Straw yellow 460 

Firmer chisels Dark purple 550 

JFraming chisels Dark purple 550 

G 

■Gimlets Dark purple 550 

Gauges Brown yellow 500 

H 

Hammer faces Very pale yellow 430 

Hand plane irons Brown yellow 500 

Half-round bits ^f. Straw yellow 460 

Hack saws Dark purple 550 

Hand tools Light yellow 440 

Hand springs Purple blue 529 to 531 

Hammers and drop dies Spotted red-brown 510 

r 

Ivory-cutting tools Very pale yellow 430 

Inserted saw teeth Straw yellow 460 

J 

Jaw pieces Purple blue 529 to 531 

L 

Leather-cutting dies . . Straw yellow 460 

Lathe tools for brass Very light yellow 420 

Large cutting dies . Straw yellow 460 

iarge forging dies for press Dark yellow 490 

M 

Moulding and planing tools Dark purple 550 

Milling cutters Straw yellow 460 

Milling cutters for brass Very light yellow 420 

N 

Needles Dark purple 5SO 

P 

Press dies for brass Light purple 530 

Press dies for cold-rolled stock Brown yellow 500 

Press dies for sheet steel Straw yellow 460 

Press dies for leather Straw yellow 460 

Press dies for paper Dark blue 570 

Penknives Straw yellow 460 



TEMPERING. 1 2/ 

Table of Tempers to Which Tools Should be Drawn, Arranged 
Alphabetically — Continued. 

Tool. Color. Deg. of Tcm. F. 

Planer tools for iron Straw yellow 460 

Planer tools for steel Very pale yellow 430 

Parts subject to shocTc Very dark blue 601 

Paper cutters Very pale yellow 430 

R . 

Rock drills Straw yellow 460 

Reamers Straw yellow 460 

S 

Shell reamers Brown yellow 500 

Screw-cutting dies Straw yellow 460 

Scrapers for brass Very pale yellow 430 

Steel-engraving tools Very pale yellow 430 

Scrapers Very light yellow 420 

Slight turning tools Very pale yellow 430 

Screw drivers Dark purple 550 

Springs Dark purple 550 

Saws for wood Dark blue 570 

Saws for bone and ivory Dark purple 550 

Stone-cutting tools Brown yellow 500 

Small milling cutters Straw yellow 460 

Shear blades Dark yellow 490 

Springs Very dark blue 601 

T 

Twist drills Brown yellow Soa 

Taps Straw yellow 460 

Threading dies for brass Light yellow 440 

1 ruing blocks Straw yellow 460 

Tools for wood, to be filed Purple blue 529 to 531 

Tools for wood, not to be filed Spotted red-brown 510 

• W. 

Wood-engraving tools Very pale yellow 430 

Wood-boring cutters Brown yellow 500 

Wire-drawing dies Straw yellow 460 

Table of Suitable Temperatures for — Deg. F. 

Annealing steel 900 to 1,300 

Annealing malleable iron (furnace iron) 1,100 to 1,400 

Annealing malleable iron (cupola iron) 1,500 to 1,700 

Annealing glass (initial temperature) 950 

Working glass 1,200 to 1,475 

Melting glass (into fluid) 2,200 

Hardening tool steel 1.200 to 1,400 



128 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Table of Suitable Temperatures for — Deg. F. 

Casehardening iron and soft steel 1,300 to 1,500 

Core ovens in foundries 350 

Drying kilns for wood 300 

Baking white enamel 150 

Baking red and green enamel 250 

Baking black enamel ■. . . 300 

Vulcanizing rubber 295 

Table of Temper Colors of Steel. Deg. F. 

Faint yellow 430 

Straw color 460 

Dark straw 470 

Brown yellow 500 

Purple 530 

Blue 550 

Full blue 560 

Polish blue J> 580 

Dark blue 600 

Pale blue 610 

Blue tingsd with green 630 

Bright red in dark 725 

Red hot in twilight 884 

Red visible by day 1,077 



CHAPTER VI. 

CASEHARDENING PROCESSES THE USE OF MACHINERY STEEL FOR 

CUTTING TOOLS AND THE TREATMENT OF IT, 

The Use of Machine Steel for Press Tools. 
For a large number of purposes, particularly in the line of 
sheet metal working, machinery steel tools, if properly hardened, 
will answer as well and sometimes better than tool steel ones, and 
if the following process is used to harden such tools they will be 
found to give the best of results and may be used with success for 
cutting the different metals. In order that the parts or tools may 
do their work and last long, they must be hardened very deep and 
come out with a fine compact grain. For dies which are to be 
used for punching regular shaped blanks from light soft stock, 
m.achine steel casehardened tools will give excellent satisfaction, 
as they are far cheaper to make and will last as long as though 
made of tool steel. 

OutUt for Fine Grain Casehardening. 
To do this work properly the following outfit is necessary : 
A good hardening oven, a number of hardening boxes, a good 
supply of raw bone, granulated, the same amount of granulated 
charcoal, some hydro-carbonated bone and the same amount 
of charred leather. A tank large enough to hold a good supply 
of water, a small tank so arranged as to allow of heating to any- 
desired temperature, and a bath of raw linseed oil, and the outfit 
will be complete. 

Packing and Heating the Work. 
Pack and heat the work as you would for regular caseharden- 
ing, and leave it in the oven to cool. When perfectly cool heat 
the pieces in hot lead and quench the same as tool steel. If the 
pieces are small they should be re-packed in the hardening box 
with granulated charcoal and heated. When packing in charcoal 
do not mix with any kind of bone or any other carbonizing mat- 
ter ; such substances open the grain, and the object of the second 
heat is to close the grain. The hardening heat should be as low 
as possible, and the hardened pieces will come out close in grain. 



130 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

with a hard, tough surface all over, while the center remains soft 
and the piece will be stronger than if made of tool steel. 

Casehardening Cuiting Tools. 
When machine steel tools are to be used for cutting they 
should be packed for the first heat in a mixture composed of equal 
parts of charcoal and charred leather, finely granulated. The use 
of charred leather gives a much tougher effect to the steel than 
bone, as the leather is almost free from phosphorus, while bone is 
not, and as phosphorus makes steel brittle the substance which 
contains the least amount of it should be used. Tools which are 
tc be used for bending and forming may be packed in bone, which 
will carbonize them as required. When using either bone or 
leather an equal amount of granulated charcoal mixed with it will 
prevent the kernels of bone and leather from adhering and form- 
ing a solid mass when hot, and as charcoal is an excellent con- 
ductor the pieces packed within the hardening box will be heated 
quicker than if no charcoal were used. 

How to Caseharden, Color and Anneal with Granulated Raw 

Bone. 
In order to attain good and satisfactory results in caseharden- 
ing by the use of granulated raw bone, as well as to color and 
anneal properly with it, the treatment of the steel must be in ac- 
cordance with the use to which it is subsequently to be put. In 
the following we give special directions for casehardening, color- 
ing and annealing machine steel by the use of Hubbard's granu- 
lated raw bone. The matter was kindly furnished to the author 
by the manufacturers of the bone, Rogers & Hubbard Company, 
Middletown, Conn., who have gone to much trouble and expense 
in order to discover the best methods for casehardening, coloring 
and annealing under different conditions, and for parts used for 
special purposes. 

To Caseharden Without Colors. 
Pack the work to be hardened in a cast-iron box. The box 
should be of suitable size ; use a box about 4 inches deep, 4 inches 
wide and 8 inches long. Put a layer of granulated raw bone in 
the bottom, then a layer of work to be hardened, and so on until 
the box is full within i^ inches of the top. This space may be 
filled with old bone that has been used. Put on the cover and 
Ijd and lute with clay. In packing, be sure to keep the work at 



CASEHARDENING PROCESSES. I3I 

least one-half an inch from the sides and ends of the box. Heat 
to a good cherry red from three to four hours, according to the 
•depth of hardening desired. Dump the whole contents in clear, 
cool, soft water. Delicate pieces should be dumped in oil. For 
larger work use a larger box and keep in longer. 

Hardening Extra Heavy Work. 

To harden pieces 4 inches and upward in diameter the work 
should be packed in clear raw borie, No. i or No. 2, surrounded 
by at least lyz to 2 inches of the "one," and heated to an orange, 
or almost white heat, for 18 hours, and then plunged into cold 
running water, salt water preferred. If the piece does not harden 
liard enough at one operation, it should be repacked and heated 
again, the same as the first time, and plunged into cold water as 
before. Great care should be taken in heating these pieces. After 
the heat is up to the required temperature, it should be kept so 
until the piece is ready to be plunged into the water. 

Hardening Drawbridge Disc and Similar Work. 

Large flat pieces require especial care and treatment. For 
liardening pieces or discs 2 feet in diameter and 4 inches thick, put 
four or five inches No. i granulated raw bone in bottom of pack- 
ing box. On this bed lay work to be hardened flat side down, 
pack at least four inches of granulated raw bone around the 
•diameter and on top. If you have any charred leather, a thin 
layer added next to the work may prevent scaling, but it is not 
a necessity. After packing, cover the box with an iron cover and 
4ute with clay. Heat to a bright cherry red and hold at this heat 
for eight or ten hours. These large flat pieces have a tendency 
to warp a little, but this can be reduced to a minimum by being 
careful not to heat above a good cherry, and by dipping the pieces 
■edgewise into a large body of cold water, which has a steady 
stream running into it, or some other way of keeping the water 
agitated. 

In hardening large flat pieces, there are four essential points 
— plenty of bone; even, steady, bright cherry heat; dip edgewise; 
large body of water that is kept agitated. 

Hardenin)g Five-inch Thrust Bearing Rings. 
If made from ordinary soft machinery steel with about .10 per 
cent or .15 per cent of carbon, it would be necessary to pack them 



132 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING, 

in No. 2 granulated raw bone and heat twelve hours to a good 
bright cherry red, then re-pack and heat nine hours again to a 
good bright cherry red. Dip in salt water singly (do not dump). 
We would advise using a cast-iron box 11 inches long, 7 inches 
deep, 6 inches wide, covered with an iron cover that will fit inside. 
Lute around the edge with clay. Such a box will hold ten rings. 

To Harden Rods or Rolh, Leaving Tenons Soft for Riveting. 

Finish the pieces to the required diameter, leaving a little extra 
length for trimming, but do not turn the tenons on the end or ends. 
Pack and heat the pieces as usual, but do not dump. Allow the 
work tOv remain in the boxes until all heat has passed off the 
same as the annealing. On being taken from the boxes the pieces 
are thoroughly annealgd with the outer surface carbonized to a 
greater or less depth, according to the time they were in the 
furnace. After turning the tenon heat the piece to a cherry and 
plunge into cold water the same as to harden tool steel. On re- 
moving from the bath the work will be found to be extremely 
hard wherever the outer surface has not been removed since car- 
bonizing, but wherever this surface has been removed, as in turn- 
ing the tenon, the softness of the original stock has been removed. 
If the stock is reqviired in rods for tenon, screw or similar ma- 
chines, cut in pieces as long as your furnace and pots will take, 
carbonize and anneal as described above. The finished work from 
these rods upon coming from the machines is ready to harden, 
leaving such portions, soft as have been turned or cut after car- 
bonizing. 

The principle of this method is that only carbonized portions 
will harden when heated and chilled and as the carbon enters but 
a short distance the carbonized surface may readily be removed, 
thus leaving the original stock, which will not harden, exposed to 
the action of the fire and water. The principle may be adapted to 
a great variety of uses where hardness and softness are required 
on the same piece. 

When it is not practical to remove any of the stock in order 
to remove the carbonized surface, the parts desired soft may be 
protected by covering them with a coating of fire-clay, thus pre- 
venting the carbonizing of the stock at these particular points, 
with the result that when plunged in the cold bath they will re- 
main soft. 



CASEHARDENING PROCESSES. 133 

To Caseharden Malleable Iron. 

If malleable iron is thoroughly malleable it should be treated 
exactly the same as any wrought iron. If it is only half annealed, 
as sorne of it is, then there are no directions to give in regard to 
it. Sometimes it will take a light casehardening, sometimes it 
will harden half way through, other times all the way through, 
according to the condition it is in. If it is thoroughly decar- 
bonized, as it could be, then it is just about the same as a piece 
of iron. 

In order to obtain the best results it is necessary to employ 
a furnace that gives and maintains a good uniform heat. 
To Use the Old Bone. . 

After dumping the pots, sepaEat-etthe bone Jrom the work and 
dry it thoroughly ; it will then be coal black. This can be used 
again by adding new granulated raw bone, about one part new to 
two of the old. Place upon your bench a box each of the 
gi anulated raw bone and the bone black ; one is white, the other 
black ; a mixture will make a gray. For very small work, screws, 
etc., use a dark gray^, i. e., two or three parts bone black and one 
of the raw bone. For very large work use white or raw bone ; 
a little proportion of raw bone and burned bone to be used for 
different sizes of work. The different shades of gray make an 
easy and reliable guide after having once become familiar with 
them. 

Pameacha raw bone may be used in exactly the same way. 
The shades of the color are not as true a guide, however, as the 
pameacha raw bone is quite dark-colored itself. 

Constant burning will finally turn the bone white; it is then 
valueless for casehardening. 

Bone and Charcoal. 
The following is recommended by a reliable party as a prac- 
tical and economical method of using granulated raw bone : For 
ordinary iron work, such as set or cap screws, etc., use one part 
granulated raw bone to three parts pulverized charcoal, thoroughly 
mixed; in this we pack our work in iron pots, then sprinkle a 
little charcoal dust on the top. In casehardening Bessemer steel 
or fine small drawn work we diminish the quantity of bone some- 
what. Pameacha raw bone may be used in the place of the 
granulated raw bone, but the proportion of charcoal should be 
somewhat diminished. 



134 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Using the T ell-Tale. 
Parties who have had but little experience in casehardening- 
may find the "tell-tale" a help to them. The tell-tale consists of 
a piece of round iron, as near the size of the work to be hardened 
as possible, that reaches down into the center of the pot, extending 
up through the cover about high enough for the tongs. The hole 
in the cover should be just large enough to allow the pin or tell- 
tale to slip out readily. When you think the work has been in 
long enough, remove the tell-tale with the tongs without dis- 
turbing the pot, and plunge it immediately into cold water. There 
may be one or more tell-tales in the cover, as desired. If the tell- 
tale shows the work to be hardened to sufficient depth, dump as 
instructed, otherwise leave in longer, and test as before. 

To Obtain Colors with Granulated Raw Bone. 
This process not only' gives the finest colors and mottling, but 
it casehardens the work at the same time. 

Preparation of the Work. 
To obtain bright colors, the work must be nicely polished and 
perfectly clean ; poorly finished, greasy work will not take bright 
colors. A clean, brightly polished surface is necessary for the 
finest 'work. 

To Char the Bone. 

To produce the colors the granulated raw bone must be thor- 
oughly charred. This can be easily and cheaply done by putting 
it into iron boxes about 9 x 9 x 36 inches, covering tightly and 
placing it in the furnace at night, after the work has been with- 
drawn. The remnant of fire and heat of the retort is sufficient 
to char the bone during the night. If, however, there is much 
fire left, it must be partially deadened, as the object is to simply 
char the bone without burning it. If the smaller boxes are used, 
they must be watched and taken out when "one" is charred. If 
there is sufficient oven room this can be arranged so as to be done 
during the day. 

To Pack the Work. 

Pack the work in a cast-iron box of suitable size for the work ; 
for screws or similar work J4 to ^ inch, use box 4 inches deep, 
4 inches wide and 8 inches long. Put a layer of charred bone in 
the bottom, then a layer of the work to be hardened and colored, 
and so on until the box is filled to within ij^ inches of the top; 



CASEHARDENING PROCESSES. I35 

fill this Space with charred bone, put on the cover and lute with 
clay. In packing, be , sure and keep the work at least ^^2 inch 
from the sides and ends of the box, and do not let any two pieces 
of the work come in contact. 

The Heat. 

Place the boxes in the furnace and bring to a cherry red, and 
hold at this heat two to four hours. To get nice colors, the heat 
must be held uniform ; if too hot, there will be no color. A good 
nice cherry red. must be maintained from the time the boxes are 
placed in the furnace until they are ready to dump. With very 
small work this time may be reduced somewhat ; with heavy work 
it may be increased. A little practice will be necessary to deter- 
mine this point. 

In order to obtain the best results it is necessary to employ a 
furnace that gives and maintains a good uniform heat. 

The Bath. 
While good colors can be obtained in rather hard water, yet 
soft water will give much better results. The bath should be 
arranged as follows : Bring your water pipe up through the bot- 
tom of the barrel reaching about half way to the top ; make the 
outlet about six inches from the bottom of the barrel ; into your 
supply pipe connect a pipe from an air pump so that the air and 
water will mix in the pipe and come into the barrel together. 
When dumping, have a running stream of water and air floating 
into the barrel. Hang a sieve under the surface of the water in 
which to dump the work. While the air pump is not absolutely 
necessary, yet its use gives more satisfactory results. Running 
water is necessary if large lots are to be dumped, as the water 
must be kept cold. Small lots may be dumped into the bath of 
still water. 

To Dump the Work. 

When the work is ready to dump, draw the boxes from the 
furnace, hold them close to the surface of the water over the sieve 
and dump, turning over the box quickly. This operation requires 
the nicest care, in order that the air may not strike the iron before 
it reaches the water. If the air strikes the iron, it assumes a black 
or blue-black streaked color. 

Cleaning the Work. 
Separate the work from the bone and boil out in clean water. 



136 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Dry in sawdust and oil over slightly, which will bring out the 
color and keep it from tarnishing. 

Colors from a Light Straw to a Deep Blue. 
Caseharden the articles as instructed, then roll them in a 
tumbling barrel of some sort, until they are brought to a proper 
finish. After they are thoroughly polished, place them in a cyHn- 
der and tumble them over a regular gas blaze until drawn to a 
desired color, then plunge in cold water, dry in sawdust and oil 
slightly to avoid tarnishing. By using a regular gas blaze, and 
noting the exact time required, the process can be timed exactly 
to produce any color desired from the light straw to a deep blue. 
If preferred, you can put the pieces in a wire cylinder where you 
can see the color, and revolve over a slow fire. The fire must be 
free from gas or the pieces will be stained. 

Directions for An'^ealing with Granulated Raw Bone. 

Pack the work to be annealed about the same as for case- 
hardening, but it is not necessary to keep the pieces separate, using 
the bone that has been burned a number of times until it is almost 
white. Place in the oven and heat until it is heated through to 
a cherry red. 

Cooling. 

As soon as the work has reached the required heat stop the 
blast, and if the oven is not required for further use, let the boxes 
remain in the furnace and cool down with the fire. Upon remov- 
ing the boxes from the oven cover them with warm ashes, old 
burned bone or air-slacked lime, so as to retain the heat as long 
as possible. Do not remove the work from the boxes until all 
heat has passed ofif. The more gradual the cooling the better 
the results. 

To Anneal Low Carbon Steel Bars. 

For bars 6^ inches in diameter use 9-inch iron pipe for pack- 
ing box, other sizes in proportion. Pack the steel in a mixture of 
half charcoal and half bone that has been used once or twice. 
This proportion does not tend to recarbonize more than five (5) 
per cent, and in all cases it is sufficient to maintain the amount of 
carbon originally in the steel. Great care must be taken in heating 
steel for annealing, heating it only to the same degree of heat that 
you would for casehardening, i. e., a good cherry red. Heavy bars 
6 inches to 7 inches in diameter should be placed in the furnace 



CASEHARDENING PROCESSES. 137 

in the morning and left in until the next morning, but no draft 
should be allowed on during the night. Upon removing the box 
from the furnace cover them with warm ashes, old burned bone or 
air-slacked lime, so as to retain the heat as long as possible. Do 
not remove the steel from the boxes until all heat has passed off. 

Smaller bars are treated in exactly the same way except the 
length of time required for heating; this diminishes as the size of 
the bar is reduced. 

To Anneal Iron Castings. 

To anneal small or thin iron castings, pack them in a cast-iron 
pot with a mixture of bright cast-iron turnings or filings and 
pulverized charcoal, half each ; have a layer of the mixture be- 
tween the castings ; it will help to keep them from warping and 
heat them more uniformly. Place the pots in the oven and bring 
to a good bright cherry red, then let them cool off. If it is neces- 
sary that they be very soft, hold them at a bright red for two or 
three hours. 

It is absolutely necessary that the castings be left in the pots 
to cool off. 

In order to obtain the best results it is necessary to employ a 
furnace that gives and maintains a good uniform heat. 

Casehardening with Cyanide of Potassium. 

The casehardening of machinery steel with cyanide of potas- 
sium can be accomplished in a number of different ways. The 
most common method of casehardening with cyanide is to heat 
the article to almost a white heat and soak it into a cake of the 
cyanide, then reheat and plunge into water. This method, how- 
ever, is a very poor one except for special jobs or a few small 
articles. 

A highly satisfactory method of casehardening with cyanide 
can be attained by melting the cyanide in an iron pot, and dipping 
the heated articles into it. To use this method for hardening 
small articles a cast-iron pot will answer, while for large pieces 
or ones with delicate portions, which are to be merely colored, a 
mild steel pot will be necessary. 

In Fig. 78 a cheaply made pot of the second kind is shown. 
It can be made of flat mild steel from two pieces of 54-ii^ch to 
^-inch thick, which should be bent to the shape shown and riveted 
and welded together. With a pot of this kind soft steel pieces may 
Tdc heated in the cyanide, and when dipped properly in water will 



138 



HARDENIXG. TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



show Up with colors equally as clear as those possible to attain by 
packing and heating ia bone and leather. One decided advantage 
of this process, for certain articles, is that delicate parts will not 
spring out of shape, as no hardness is produced in them, which 
is a decided advantage in a large variety- of work which is re- 
quired to be colored, but not hard. 

When the articles are desired to be hard the cast-iron pot may 
be used, although care will be necessan,- in order to prevent ex- 
cessive warping in any but very small pieces. 





FIG. 78. — SHEET STEEL POT FOR CYANIDE HARDENING. 

A strange thing about this process is that the first time a !iew 
steel pot is used the work heated in it will come through as hard 
as if a cast-iron pot was used. To overcome this, heat a new pot 
once before doing any work. Where a great deal of this work is 
done a hard coal-burning furnace should be built with a lid of 
cast-iron on the top or roof, in which a hole about the shape of the 
pot has been cored. In hardening or coloring by this method be 
sure that the articles are perfectly dn.- before putting them into 
the cyanide. If there is any moisture or dampness in the grain 
the cvanide will flv like hot lead. 



CASEHARDEXIXG PROCESSES. I39 

Accurate Sectional Casehardening. 

The accurate sectional casehardening of special machinery- 
steel parts may be accomplished by a special process so that the 
hard and soft surfaces may be controlled with absolute accuracy. 

Take the article or part, of which sections only are desired to 
be hardened, and coat the surfaces requiring hardening with black 
Japan enamel, having first thoroughly cleaned the surfaces to be 
afterward enameled, and after they are perfectly dr\- have the 
work plated with copper, being sure that the Japan coating has 
not been eaten away by any cleaning fluids. 

After plating, the piece must be carbonized, which ordinarily 
requires from three to four hours at a bright red heat in bone 
dust. At this heat the pores of the metal open and freely absorb 
the carbon. After the heating period has expired remove the 
box and allow the article to cool slowly in the bone dust. When 
the part is cold remove from the bone, heat to a red in an open, 
fire and quench in cold water. 

The fracture of a piece of metal treated as described above 
will present a fine velvety appearance, this being brought about 
through the second heating. If the part is quenched after the 
first heating or working process, a coarse grain will be the crude 
result. 

Upon testing the properly heated piece with a file, it will be 
found that the plated surfaces are soft and the Japanned ones hard. 
This result comes about through the copper plating preventing the 
absorption of carbon during the roasting process and the Japan 
burning off and allowing the opposite to occur, allowing the carbon 
to penetrate to a depth of 1-16 inch. By repeating the process 
the hardened surface will deepen and the structure of the metal 
will not deteriorate. 

To Produce Fine Grained Hardened Machine Steel Parts. 

The reason why machinery steel has not been adopted and used 
extensively in place of expensive tool steel is that ver\- few me- 
chanics are able to harden it so as to produce a fine grain. When 
it is considered that machine steel would replace to advantage 
many tool steel parts if the process for producing a fine grain was 
generally known the value of the method is ob\4ous. 

All steel parts which are subjected to pressure, w^ear. or con- 
cussion are required to have a strong close-grained backing in 



I40 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

order to stand up well when in use. Tool steel has this fine grain, 
while machine steel in its natural condition has not, and when case- 
hardened, by the ordinary process, the grain becomes even coarser 
through the pores opening during the heating process when the 
carbon is absorbed ; the higher the heat to which such parts are 
brought the coarser the grain. 

To harden machine steel parts and articles so as to produce 
a grain equal to that of high-grade tool steel proceed as directed 
in this chapter under heading, "The Use of Machine Steel for 
Press Tools. '^ The process will answer for all parts and articles 
"which can be made from mild steel which will be subjected to 
strain, wear or pressure, such as cutting dies for thin stock, form- 
ing and bending dies, cams, plug, ring, and snap gages ; bicycle, 
sewing and typewriting machine parts, spindles, and a variety of 
other parts which will Suggest themselves to the reader. 

Casehardening Ends of Steel Rails. 

A process for casehardening the ends of track rails, which or- 
dinarily are of comparatively short endurance because of the 
greater wear to which they are subjected, has been invented by 
M. E. Coyan, of the Carnegie Steel Company's Works, at Home- 
stead, Pa. The process obviates loss of service, now quite general, 
in having to remove tracks with battered ends, while the inter- 
mediate portions are yet sound. The description of the process 
as given in the "Railway Review" is given below : 

In operation the rails are passed through the finishing rolls and 
are sawed off and placed on a horizontal table. Located at 
each end of the table and near one side is a spray designed to 
deposit a casehardening solution on the ends of the hot rails as 
they enter the table. The rails are kept moving across the table 
the same as in usual treatment, the casehardening material burning 
and soaking into the ends until the rail runs in contact with water 
sprays, located just opposite the casehardening sprays, and so 
constructed as to extend half the length of the table. The ends 
coming in contact remain in the bath until they reach the opposite 
side of the table, where they pass from out of the bath and are 
carried away for straighteninp-. 

Very Deep Casehardening. 
When small mild steel articles are required to be hardened very 
deep, put the parts into a crucible and add enough cyanide of 



casehardeninG processes. 141 

potash to cover them when melted. Cover the crucible and heat 
as required, then remove parts and quench into a cold water bath» 
Parts treated in this manner will harden very deep. 

To Caseharden Small Iron Parts. 

Put into an iron pot, or crucible, i part prussiate of potash 
and 10 parts of common salt, fuse together, and put articles in. 
Allow the parts to remain in the liquid for 30 minutes, after which 
quench in cold water, and a good caseharden will result. 

To Caseharden zmth Charcoal. 

To caseharden with charcoal, the articles finished, but not pol- 
ished, should be put into an iron pot, and covered with an animal 
or vegetable charcoal, and brought to a red heat, when they will 
cement. The heat should be kept up for a period varying with the 
size and description of the articles worked upon, 

Moxon's Method of Casehardening. 

Cow's horn or hoof is to be baked or thoroughly dried and 
pulverized in order that more may be packed in the box with the 
articles to be worked upon. Bones reduced to dust will answer the 
same purpose. To this add an equal quantity of bay salt; mix 
then with this stale chamber-lye, cover the iron with this mixture, 
and bed it in th^ same as loam, or inclose it in an iron box. Lay 
it on the hearth to dry and harden, and then put into the fire. Heat 
the mass until a blood red heat — no higher — appears, and then 
remove the iron and quench in cold water. 

A Casehardening Mixture for Iron. 

A good casehardening mixture for iron is composed of equal 
parts prussiate of potash, sal-ammoniac and saltpeter; add 4}^ 
ounces more of sal-ammoniac and 7 gallons of water. Heat the 
iron red hot and soak it in, the composition. 

A Casehardening Paste. 

To caseharden iron parts quickly and satisfactorily, make a 
paste with a concentrated solution of loam and prussiate of potash. 
Coat the parts to be hardened with the paste and heat them to a 
bright red, after which allow them to cool to a dull red and therL 
quench in a cold water bath. 



342 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Casehardening Polished Parts. 

To caseharden mild steel or iron parts which have been pre- 
viously finished and polished, heat them to a bright red in a closed 
fire and wipe them with prussiate of potash. When the prussiate 
appears to decompose and dissipate, quench the article or part in 
■cold water. When the process has been conducted properly the 
surface of the parts will be well hardened to a depth sufficient to 
resist a file. This process will be found to be a great improve- 
ment over the ordinary method as the application of the prussiate 
allows of casehardening a part, or a number of parts, of the ar- 
ticles and still leave the remaining sections soft. 

Casehardening as it Should be Understood. 

In order to caseharden successfully it is not merely necessary 
to follow the directions herein given. The principles must be un- 
derstood and retained in order that the operation shall be accom- 
plished in a manner fitting special requirements. In the first place 
the operation of casehardening consists first and foremost of giving 
-a surface to steel or iron that will be capable of receiving a great 
external hardness, while the interior remains soft and in its natural 
tough state. Thus the part will be capable of withstanding wear, 
strain and concussion when in use. Second, the above mentioned 
results can only be accomplished satisfactorily by packing and heat- 
ing the parts in close vessels filled with animal carbon. 

The following being kept in mind, no difficulty will be experi- 
enced in performing casehardening operations successfully : Pack 
in a good animal carbon, make the box air-tight by luting with 
day, place in fire and keep at a red heat for a length of time suffi- 
cient to allow of hardening to the depth desired — a half hour of 
lieat will allow of hardening 1-32 inch deep, an hour 1-16 inch, 
two hours }i inch, and so forth, the longer the heating period the 
greater the depth to which the pieces will be hardened. After the 
heating period has elapsed the parts may be taken from the box 
and quenched in cold water, or better still, they may be reheated 
to a cherry red and then quenched. When cool, remove from the 
water and dry thoroughly, to prevent rusting, by riddling them in 
a sieve with dry sawdust. To keep delicate articles from blistering 
during the heating process, dip them into a powder of burnt bones, 
leather, or some other coaly animal matter. 



CHAPTER VII. 

HARDENING AND TEMPERING MILLING CUTTERS AND SIMILAR TOOLS. 

Hardening Milling Cutters in the Open Fire. 

For the hardening of milHng cutters and tools of a similar na- 
ture, water or brine is mostly used, the liquid being kept in a tank 
with an exhaust pipe and a supply pipe connected with it. Solu- 
tions are used to some extent and good results are obtained. On 
the whole, however, success in hardening such tools depends prin- 
cipally upon the man who does the heating and quenching. 

To harden a milling machine cutter in the open fire, have a 
large, high charcoal fire and bury the cutter well in it and use only 
enough blast to heat the work to the required temperature, being 
careful to get the heat uniform throughout. If the cutter has not 
been annealed after roughing and drilling the hole through it, re- 
move it from the fire when red hot and allow it to cool ofif slowly 
until a black appears. It can then be again placed in the fire, 
slowly brought to the required heat, plunged into the bath of tepid 
water or brine and worked around well until it stops "singing." 
At this point it should be removed and instantly plunged in the oil 
bath and left there until it is cool, when the strain should be re- 
moved by holding over the fire until it is warm enough to snap 
when touched by a drop of water. It can then be laid aside and 
the temper drawn at leisure. In hardening punch press dies they 
can be treated the same; if there are any screw holes for stripper 
or guide screws they should be filled with fire clay, graphite or 
asbestos. Much depends on an even, uniform heat ; uneven heat 
causes more cutters and dies to crack than high heat. Steel should 
never be given any more heat than is necessary for the operation 
desired. 

Hardening Large Milling Cutters. 

Large, plain or former milling cutters, say over 3^^ inches in 
diameter and 4 inches long, to harden should be packed in a mix- 
ture of equal quantities of granulated charred leather and charcoal, 
taking care not to have any part of the mill within, say, 2 inches of 
the box at any point. Keep it in the furnace for 4 to 4}^ hours 
after the box is heated through to a low red ; remove the box from 



144 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 











.^ 



'f:\ 



■H*Y(fn"^^^^S 




HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 



145 




PIG. 80. — TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS. 



146 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



the furnace at the expiration of the time and quench the cutter in 
a bath of raw hnseed oil, twirhng it around rapidly in the oil so as 




FIG. 81. — SPECIAL FORM- 
ING CUTTER. 




FIG. 82. — DOUBLE FACE 

MILL. 



to cause the oil to come in contact with the teeth. Allow the 
cutter to remain in the oil until cold. A formed mill with heavy 
teeth does not need to have the temper drawn. Mills with 




FIG. 83.— GANG OF STRAIGHT-FACED MILLING CUTTERS. 



teeth cut in the ordinary manner should be run quite as long, and 
may be drawn for ordinary work to a light straw color, or if drawn 



HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 



147 



in a kettle gaging the heat by a thermometer to 425 or 430 degrees 
Fahr. 

We have seen a large number of milling cutters and similar 
tools treated by this method and have never known one to be lost 
by cracking. In years of experience with this method we have had 
but a few pieces crack. 

Hardening and Tempering Milling Cutters in Water and Oil. 
A rapid and highly satisfactory method for hardening and 
tempering milling cutters is by the combined oil and water method. 




FIG. 84. — GANG OF MILLING CUTTERS FOR MACHINING A 
WIDE-FORMED SURFACE. 

When only a small quantity of such tools are required, this method 
will be found superior to the ordinary hardening and tempering 
method. 

The method is as follows ; The cutter to be hardened is heated 





FIG. 85. — FORMED FACE MILL. 



FIG. 86. — SHELL END MILL. 



to a proper uniform temperature, quenched into a cold-water bath 
and left there long enough to harden the outside only, but not 
enough to cool the steel clear through. It is then taken from the 
v/ater as quickly as possible and plunged into lard oil and held 



148 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



there until the outside is almost cold. The tool is then taken from 
the oil and the "temper" immediately drawn by allowing the heat 
remaining in the core of the tool to draw the teeth ; this may be 
aided to some extent by holding the tool in the flame of the forge 
or furnace. The reheating should be continued until the oil com- 
mences to smoke. To insure an even temper it is best to then 




FIG. 87.— GANG OF CUTTERS. 

plunge the tool for an instant into the oil and again heat, doing 
this several times until the smoke rises evenly from all over the 
tool. This second plunge into the oil tends to cool off any fine 
points that might become overheated, while the tool is not left in 
the oil long enough to cool ofif the thicker parts, thus insuring a 
more uniform and evener heat than would be the case if the tool 
were heated all at once. 

Advantages of the Method. 
The above-described method may seem to some to be a more 




FIG. 



. — SPFCIAL MILLING CUTTER. 



tedious one than that ordinarily used, but as the time saved is con- 
siderable, and the results, particularly in experienced hands, are 
much more reliable, it should be adopted where good milling cut- 
ters are required. 

The ordinary method of tempering tool-steel milling cutters is 



HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 



149 



to heat the cutter to the proper temperature and then cool it "dead 
cold" in water, brine, or solution. When cold it is removed from 
the bath and the teeth are polished. Then the cutter is "drawn" 
to the proper color by heating from some external means, such as 
over a red-hot piece of iron or a low fire, or in oil or sand bath. 

The polishing for tempering takes considerable time, as it must 
be pretty well done in order to allow the temper colors to show up 




PIG. 




SPECIAL END MILL. 



PIG. 90. — TAPER MILL. 



properly. Then, again, the steel is "dead cold" and will require 
considerable heat to raise it to the proper temperature to give the 
desired temper. All the heat that goes into the steel must go 
through the cutting edges, leaving them as soft as, if not softer, 
than the body of the tool, when they should be the hardest part of 
the tool. By the other methods the results are different, as the 




PIG. 91. — PORMED BUTT MILL. 



teeth, or cutting edges, which are, of course, the parts that are 
wanted hard, are hard ; while the central part or core of the tool 
is comparatively soft, which is in all cases a desirable condition. 

When milling cutters are hardened in water they often crack, 
cracking taking place not, as might be imagined, when the hot 
steel is first plunged into the water, but about that time the central 
part is becoming real cold, as the outside cutting edges are properly 



I50 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



hardened while the inside is yet comparatively hot ; and when the 
inside cools and contracts while the outside remains rigid, the 
cracking takes place. The slower the tool is cooled, the longer the 
time in which the central metal has a chance to "adjust" itself to 
molecular changes, and consequently there is less liability of crack- 




I^IG. 92. — FORMED BUTT MILI*. 




ing. For this reason hardening in oil is not as liable to crack 
tools, but for the same reason the tools are not as hard. 

By the oil and -water method the outside is hardened in water 
and the inside in oil, thus giving the cutting edges the required 
hardness and at the same time lessening the tendency of cracking 
or warping by more slowly cooling the inside. 





FIG. 94. — ANGLE END MILL. 



FIG. 95. — FORMED BUTT MILL. 



A good way to decide upon the proper instant at which to draw 
the tool from the water, when hardening the outside, is to put the 
hand in the water near the tool, and as soon as the water ceases to 
boil on the surface of the steel, the tool should be removed from 
the water and plunged into the oil bath. 



HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 



151 



The object of this cooHng first in water and then in oil is this : 
The outside of the tool is wanted very hard ; the inside somewhat 
softer. The faster the heat is abstracted from the heated tool, the 
harder it becomes ; so by first plunging it into the water the cutting 
edges are given the desired degree of hardness, and as soon as 
they are hardened, the tool, with the central part still hot, is 





FIG. 96. — SPECIAI, PORMBD BUTT MILL. FIG. 97. — ^END MILLS. 

plunged into oil ; and as the oil does not abstract the heat as fast 
as the water, the steel has more time to adjust itself to molecular 
motion and there is less tendency to crack. Again, the oil left 
on the outside of the tool serves as an indicator for determining 
the temperature at which to reheat the steel to give the proper 
temper. As the tool is not completely cooled in the oil, very little 




FIG. 98. — ^SPFJCIAL MILL. 

external heat is required to draw it. In fact, the drawing of the 
temper really begins immediately upon removing the tool from 
the water bath. 

Lard oil is the best to use in tempering in this way, and it has 
been found that the oil commences to show a very faint smoke at 
about the same temperature as a light straw; the proper temper 
may be considered as reached when the smoke is seen coming 
from all parts of the tool. 



152 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



Tools tempered in this way will prove to be harder and yet 
tougher than those tempered according to the ordinary method. 
Milling cutters from Yx inch in diameter up have been tempered 




FIG. 99. — SPECIAI, MIJJ,. 




FIG. 100. — ANGULAR END MILL. 

in this way, as well as taps of various kinds and sizes ; reamers 
and other like tools so tempered have always been very satis- 
factory. 

Hardening V-Shaped Milling Cutters. 
The following directions for hardening V-shaped milling cut- 




FIG. lOI. — DOUBLE SLOTTING FND MILL. 





FIG. 102. — FND MILL. 



FIG. 103. — FACING 

MILL. 



ters for milling tool steel if followed out will be the means of se- 
curing satisfactory results. 



HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 



153 



Heat the cutters in a gas furnace, open fire or in a hot lead 
bath. Not so much depends on the means used for heating as 
upon how hot and whether uniformly heated; and as to lead stick- 
ing to the work, if it is used, there should be little trouble if pure 
lead is used with plenty of broken charcoal on top to prevent 
oxidation; but if there is still trouble it can be avoided by coating 
the article with salt before putting into the lead-heating bath. 
This is easily done by warming the work up to a blue and dipping 
in a strong solution of salt and water. 

In hardening, the cutters may be cooled in cold water or brine, 
temperature depending on the character of cutter, whether very 




FIG. 104. — HOLLOW MILLS. 

delicate or not. With some heavy cutters it might be ice cold, 
while in the case of very thin, delicate cutters it would be better 
to have the bath up to blood heat or even higher; it is simply a 
question of preventing cracking. 

Remove the cutters from the cooling bath as soon as the teeth 
have cooled sufficiently to harden, and instantly immerse them in 
oil to remain there, if convenient, until cold. 



Hozv to Harden HoUozu Mills. 

When hollow mills are to be hardened, care should be taken 

when heating not to heat very much above the teeth, as it is not 

necessary for the back to be hard. When the proper heat has 

been attained, the mill should be inverted and hardened in the 



154 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING, 



bath with the teeth up, and it should be worked up and down 
rapidly in the bath in order to force the contents into the hole. 
Better results are always attained if this method of dipping is 
adopted with pieces having holes running part way through them, 
as then the steam can escape and the water can enter the hole ; 
whereas, if dipped with the opening down, steam which generates 
rises in the hole, and as there is more steam than the hole can con- 
tain, it escapes from the bottom and blows the water from the 
teeth, not allowing them to harden properly. Vapors generated 
in the bath are a source of annoyance often overlooked by inex- 
perienced hardeners, and often cause a great deal of trouble. 

Milling Cutters. 

Milling cutters may be classified in four distinct types. The 

first and probably the most common form is known as the axial, 

Fig. 105, in which the surface cut is parallel to the axis of the 

cutter. This cutter has teeth on its periphery only ; these may be 



^^'^mm 




S'IG. 105. — AXIAL TYPE 
OV' MII^LING CUTTER. 



Radial 
PIG. 106. — RADIAL TYPE OF 
MILLING CUTTER. 



straight or spiral teeth. Cutters of this character, made in ap- 
propriate widths, are used very much for milling broad, flat sur- 
faces and for cutting keyways in shafts. For deep cuts, or for 
slitting metal, they are made of large diameter and thin. These 
are called metal-slitting saws, and are ground hollow on the sides 
for clearance. 

The second class of cutters is known as the radial. Fig. 106, m 
which the surface cut is perpendicular to the axis of the cutter. 
These cutters are called radial because their teeth are used in a 
plane parallel to the radii of the cutter. End mills, face mills, 
butt cutters, etc., are all tools in this class. 

The third class of cutters is the angular, Fig. 107, in which the 
surface cut is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the axis of the 



HARDENING MILLING CUTTERS. 



155 



cutter, but is at some angle with this axis. Frequently cutters are 
made with two different angular cutting edges, in which case the 
angle is marked on each side.. 

The fourth class of cutters is the formed cutter, as shown in 




Angular 
I^IG. 107. — ANGULAR TYPE OI*' 
MILLING CUTTER. 




PIG. 108. — FORMED TYPE OE 
MILLING CUTTER. 



Fig. 108. The cutting edge of this class is of an irregular outline^ 
When properly backed off, these cutters can be ground and retain 
their original form. Gear cutters, tools for grooving taps, etc., 
are all classed as form cutters. 

Among the numerous engravings in this book will be found 




FIG. 109.— CUTTER EOR SPIRAL MILLS. 
40* ON ONE SIDE, 12' 



INCLUSIVE ANGLE B IS 52' 
ON OTHER. 



illustrations of a large number of cutters which are used on mill- 
ing machines. In most cases it is advisable to use a cutter of 
small diameter rather than of large diameter. Cutters from ij'2 
to 2 inches in diameter are the most economical for general 
milling. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

HARDENING, TEMPERING AND STRAIGHTENING ALL KINDS OF 
SMALL TOOLS. 

Hardening Ring Gages. 

To harden ring gages and other tools of a similar nature so 
that they will harden around the hole and leave the remaining 
parts soft, clamp the tool between flange-ended tubes and allow 




FIG. no. — U. S. STANDARD THREAD GAGiCS, EXTERNAL 
AND INTERNAL. 



a stream of water or brine to circulate through them. By this 
method the walls will harden out as far as the inner edges of the 
clamping flanges. 

Dipping Small Tools When Hardening. 

When small tools such as penknife blades, razor, lancet, chisel, 
gage-bit, place spoke sheaves, three and four square files, round 
and flat files, iron-shaving knives are to be hardened great care 
must be taken to dip them into the quenching bath endwise or 
perpendicularly. By doing this they will come out straight, 
while, on the contrary, if they are slanted while dipping, there 
will be a tendency to warp. 



HARDEN, TEMPER AND STRAIGHTEN SMALL TOOLS. 1 5/ 

Dipping Half-Round Reamers When Hardening. 

When hardening half-round reamers or any other tools that 
are solid and half-round, enter them at an angle of about twenty 
degrees with the surface of the bath. This will tend to keep them 
straight. In a half-round tool there is once and a half as much 
surface in the half-round portion to be hardened as on the flat 
side, and as in hardening the contraction of the steel is equal, 
according to the surface, it is necessary to dip the half-round 
side at the angle mentioned. As the half-round portion has a 
greater percentage of contraction than the flat side, the unequal 
contraction will draw the reamer to one side and warp it. 

Dipping Fluted Reamers When Hardening. 

When hardening fluted reamers, dip them perpendicularly to 
a short distance beyond the fluting, that is to say, about half an 
inch, and withdraw and return them a number of times. This 
will harden all the lips, and prevent them from cracking off at 



PIG. III. — COUNTERSINK. FIG. 112. — SMALL ANGLE MILL. 

the water's edge, which is usually the case when a piece of steel 
is dipped into a certain depth and allowed to cool without moving. 
A number of different tools are often broken off at the ends in this 
way, without anyone knowing what caused them to crack. 

Straightening Tools Which Have Warped in Hardening. 

When a piece of steel which has been hardened and tempered 
is found to have sprung, it may be straightened as follows : Heat 
it slightly, not enough to draw the temper, and it may be straight- 
ened on the anvil with a hammer. This cannot be done when the 
piece is dead cold. It is best, however, to straighten a piece when- 
ever possible between the centers of a lathe, or on a block of w^ood 
with a mallet. Warm, the steel will yield readily to the blows of 
the mallet, but cold, it will break like glass. 

A sword blade which has warped in hardening may be ham- 
mered flat ; too much hammering, however, will cause the blade 
to lose its elasticity. When this occurs it may be returned to its 
elastic state again without re-hardening by heating slowly to a 



158 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



Spring temper. This method may be adopted to advantage for 
other kinds of work also. 

Hardening Very Thin Tools so as to Prevent Warping. 

A good way to harden very thin tools so as to insure against 
their warping is to heat them carefully and stick them into a raw 
potato. Then remove and temper as desired over a gas flame. 

Warping of Long Tools in Hardening. 

Trouble with the warping or the twisting of long tools, such 
as taps and reamers, in hardening and tempering, can be avoided 




If'IG. 113. — INSERTED CUTTER PIPE TAP. 

if care is taken. If, in hardening, one can so manage as to retain 
a soft center in the article there will be, or need be, but little 
difficulty in overcoming the warp. This will at least be found 
true in large tools which have a larger proportion of soft core than 
those of smaller cross-section. With these last, and in fact, in 
all, care must be taken to lower the tool perfectly square into the 
quenching bath, so that the heat will be absorbed equally from all 
•sides. This desirable tendency will be increased if the tool is 
lowered in the center of the bath. 

If the above is true about the hardening bath, it is equally 



HARDEN, TEMPER AND STRAIGHTEN SMALL TOOLS. 1 59 

SO of the heating bath, where melted lead or other liquids are used 
for heating. One thing must be remembered, and that is that 
there will be no use in taking the trouble to cool a tool equally if 
it has been heated unequally. For this reason, tools should be 
immersed squarely and centrally into the heating-bath, and turned 
around. The turning process will also contribute to good results, 
in quenching. 

Temperature "Tell-Tales" for Use in Heating Steel. 

In order to show just how hot steel is that is being annealed 
in a muffle or box, supply some one-fourth inch rods, which may be 
pulled out from time to time to test the temperature. 

Working Steel for Tools. 

In forging steel for tools great care must be taken to hammer 
.all sides alike. The careless and unequal hammering of steel 
when forging is responsible for a great deal of bad work in hard- 
ening. Another thing, steel, when being forged, should be heated 
as hot as it will stand until finishing, and should then be ham- 
mered until almost black-hot. This treatment will set the grain 
of the steel finer, and give a tool a better edge when finished. The 
reason for heating the steel to a bright red heat while forging is 
simply because it makes the steel tougher when hardened and 
softer when annealed ; while, on the contrary, when steel is worked 
at a low red heat, the continued shocks of the hammer will so 
harden it as to make it almost impossible to anneal it, and at the 
same time render it too brittle, when hardened, for general use. 

Hardening Small Sazvs. 

To harden small saws such as are used for screw head slotting, 
etc., heat on a flat surface and clamp between two thick cast-iron 
plates, which should be perfectly level and coated with a heavy 
grease. 

Hardening Cutter-Bits. 

Cutter-bits such as are used in lathe tool holders should be 
hardened regularly when soft at the lower ends. When too soft 
to use they should be laid aside until a sufficient number of them 
are at hand to be hardened. They can then be heated by putting 
them into a box and heating them to a dull red, and the end of 
•each stuck into a perforated iron pan, the bottom of which should 



l6o HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

be covered with just a sufficient depth of water to harden them 
up as far as desired. The tools may then be ground and put with 
the new cutters. Do not let high-grade steel such as should be 
used for cutter-bits get into the smith's fire. 

Hardening Mixture for General Smith Work. 

Salt, 2 ounces; copperas, i^ ounces; sal-ammoniac, 1^2 
ounces; saltpeter, i^ ounces; sal-soda, ij^ ounces, and black 
oxide magnesia, 8 ounces. The last two ingredients should be 
added after the others are mixed together. Before mixing the 
ingredients, pulverize them separately, and then mix well and dry 
before using. Use like yellow prussiate of potash and plunge in 
water. 

Tempering Flat Drills for Hard Stock. 

Procure good high degree steel and heat to a cherry red, and 
hammer until nearly cold, forming the end into the requisite 
flattened shape, then heat it again to a cherry red, and plunge it 
into a lump of resin or into quicksilver. A solution of cyanide 
of potassium in rain water is sometimes used for the tempering 
plunge-bath, but it will not give the result that quicksilver or resin 
will. 

To Temper Gravers. 

Gravers may be tempered in the same way as drills ; or the 
red-hot tool may be pressed into a piece of lead in which a hole 
about half an inch deep has been cut to receive the graver ; the 
lead melting around the article will give it an excellent temper. 

To Temper Old Files. 

Grind out the cuttings on one side of the file until a bright 
surface is obtained ; then moisten the surface with a little oil, 
and place the file on a piece of red-hot plate with the bright side 
upward. In about a minute the bright surface will begin to turn 
yellow, and when the yellow has deepened to about the color of 
straw, plunge in cold water. 

Hardening and Tempering Small Taps, Knives, Springs, Etc. 

Secure a piece of pipe of sufficient diameter and length to ac- 
commodate the piece, and heat one end, flatten together on the 
anvil, and weld so it will not leak. Fill the pipe with lead and 
set it up in the fire. When the lead has melted, immerse the tool 



^HARDEN, TEMPER AND STRAIGHTEN SMALL TOOLS. l6l 

and let it remain until the lead is red-hot. Then quench in a 
salt water bath and when cool remove it. To temper the tool, heat 
a large piece of iron in the forge to a red heat. Grease the tool 
all over with tallow. Remove the iron from the forge and lay on 
the anvil. Hold the tool over hot iron by means of tongs or 
pliers, turning it all the time until the desired color is obtained 
and then drop it into linseed oil. A good and uniform temper 
should result. 

Tempering Small Spiral Springs. 

To temper small spiral springs heat to a cherry red in a char- 
coal fire, and harden in oil. To temper, blaze off the oil three 
times ; the same as for small flat springs. 

To Draiv Small Steel Parts to a Blue. 

Fill a cast-iron box with sand and heat it red hot. Then put 
the article, which has been first highly polished, into the sand and 
when the right color appears remove and quench in oil. 

Small steel parts of guns, typewriters, sewing machines, etc., 
may be blued cheaply and well in a solution of ten parts saltpeter 
and black oxide of manganese, heated in an iron pot to the point 
where sawdust thrown on it will flash. 

Small pieces may be strung on wires in considerable quanti- 
ties and dipped in solution, a minute or two being sufficient time 
ordinarily, although of course this will vary with the thickness of 
the pieces. The blue produced by this process is what is called 
Government Blue and is not quite equal to the English Blue, which 
is secured with hot charcoal and whiting, as all gunmakers will 
understand, but it will answer very well and is very much cheaper. 

If springs are to be blued, they may be hardened and polished 
and the bluing process will draw them to the proper temper at 
the same time, and the temper will be very uniform. 

It will be well to bore some holes in the solution before plac- 
ing on the fire to heat, for if a vent is not provided there will be 
a commotion. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES AND ALL KINDS OF 
PRESS TOOLS FOR THE WORKING OF SHEET METAL. 

The Hardening and Tempering of Press Tools. 

Of the hardening and tempering of dies and all manner of 
press tools too much cannot be written, as upon the results of 
this part of their construction depends the efficiency of the tools. 
For heating dies a gas furnace is preferable, but when this is not 
at hand a good clean charcoal fire will do. 

For hardening large dies it is indispensable to have a large 
tank which should be arranged in such a manner as to insure the 
rapid cooling of the steel. A tank of this kind can be arranged 
by fixing two or three rods across the inside about 12 inches 
below the surface of the water, and a pipe let into the tank in 
such a manner as to allow of a circulation of a stream of water 





IflG. 114- — COMBINATION DIES, WITH HARDENED AND GROUND TOOL 
STEEL WORKING PARTS SOLID-FORGED TO WROUGHT-IRON PLATES. 

from the bottom upward. When the die is to be quenched the 
water should be turned on and kept running until the steel has 
cooled. When a good circulation of water is kept up in the tank 
there will not be any soft spots in the die after hardening. 

It is often necessary to construct dies from forgings of 
wrought iron and tool steel, and, as the dies when finished are 
required to be hardened, it is necessary there should be a good 
weld between the two parts. To accomplish this result, when 
welding mix mild steel chips, from which all of the oil has been 



THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. 



163 



removed, with the borax and there will be no difficulty in produc- 
ing a clean weld and one which will not buckle or separate in 
hardening. 

Hard or Soft Punches and Dies. 
At times, when tools are required for sheet-metal working, 
it is hard to determine whether a punch and die should be hard- 
ened, or whether one of them should be left soft, and if so, 
which one? The stock to be worked and the nature of the work 
liave to be considered when deciding this matter. Some classes of 
work will be accomplished in the best manner by using a soft 
punch and a hard die ; others when a hard punch and a soft die are 




FIG. 115. — "push-through" FIG. I16. — SOLID BOTTOM CUTTING 

CUTTING AND DRAWING AND DRAWING DIE. 

DIE. 



used, while in a majority of cases the best results will be obtained 
by using a punch and die that are both hard. For punching or 
shearing heavy metals both die and punch should be hard, while 
for all metals which are soft and not over 1-16 inch thick, a soft 
punch and a hard die will be found to work v/ell. By leaving 
one of the dies soft it will be easy to produce clean blanks during 
the life of the tools, as when the punch and die become dull it 
will only be necessary to grind the hard one, upset the soft one 
and shear it into the die. 

Hardening and Tempering Drop Dies. 
If there is one class of tools the hardening of which is less gen- 
erally understood than others, it is the class used for drop press 
work. When dies of this class are to be hardened special care 
is necessary. Instead of plunging the whole die into the quench- 



164 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



ing bath (when heated properly) set it in an inclined position 
and direct a strong stream of cold water onto the face of the die. 
By having the stream strong the whole die face will be covered, 
and the contraction of the metal at the surface will be equal. 
Allow the water to strike the die until the bath ceases to boil, 
and then gradually diminish the stream and allow the die to cool 
slowly. By placing the die in the inclined position when hard- 
ening, the water will run off the face and thereby the bottom will 
remain soft and hot while the die portion proper will be hard, 
which is always a desirable condition in dies of this kind. At 
the same time the temper can be drawn by the heat remaining in 
the base of the die. When the colors appear turn the water on 
until cool. 

When a muffle is used to heat steel parts for hardening, pro- 
vide a number of 3-16-inch rods. Put them in with the steel 




Redrawing Punch. Inside Blank Holder. Redrawing Die 

PIG. 117. — REDRAWING DIE WITH INSIDE BLANK HOLDER. 



and remove one from time to time during the heating process 
to test the temperature. 

To anneal white or hard iron die parts so that they may be 
machined with ease, put the parts into an iron box and pack 
around them a mixture composed of equal parts of common 
sand, fine steel turnings and steel scale from the rolling mills. 
Wet the mixture with the solution of sal-ammoniac, after which 
place the box in a furnace and heat to a white heat. Keep the 
heat for five or six hours, and then allow the box to cool slowly. 
When cool remove the castings and they will be found to be 
malleable enough to allow of cutting them. The packing of the 
mixture mentioned above and the wetting of it with the solution 
contributes to the annealing, and allows of the castings or parts 
coming through the process free from scale and lumps. 

Hotv to Harden Large Ring Dies. 
To harden large ring dies, which are to be ground after hard- 



THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. I65 

ening, and which are required to be very hard about the center 
of the hole and the walls, they should be heated in large iron 
boxes as follows : Put a layer of fine powdered charcoal about 
2 inches deep in the bottom of the box and place the die on it. 
Fill the die and then cover it to a depth of about ^ inch with a 
mixture of 4 parts powdered charcoal to i part of charred leather, 
then put a loose cover on the box and place in the furnace. 
After heating about three hours or more, according to the size of 
the die, the metal will be at a red heat. It should then be allowed 
to remain at a low heat for about an hour, which will insure its 
heating uniformly throughout. The heat should then be in- 
creased until the die comes to a full red heat ; it is then ready to 
be quenched. 

Remove the box from the furnace, and with two pair of tongs, 
and a man at opposite sides, if the die is too large for one man 
to handle, draw the die from the box, clean, and quench squarely 




Dra-wing Punch. Blank Holder and Die. 

Cutting Punch. 

FIG. 118. — DOUBLE-ACTION CUTTING AND DRAWING DIE. 

into the water, working up and down until the red has entirely 
disappeared, then let it lie still until cool. When cool remove 
the die from the water and heat, to remove the strain and chill 
of hardening, until drops of water sprinkled on it will steam. 
Then lay it aside in an even temperature where it will cool off 
slowly. 

When large ring dies are hardened in the manner described 
above there need be no fear that they will warp, crack or shrink 
excessively or unevenly. 

Hardening a Long Punch so as to Prevent Warping. 
Often, after carefully hardening a long punch, it will be 



i66 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



found to have warped during the process — often to such an ex- 
tent as to make it useless. There is a way by which this tend- 
ency of the steel may be eliminated altogether — at least the warp 
will be so little as to not affect the working qualities of the tool. 
To eliminate the possibility of warping lower the steel, when at 
the proper heat, squarely into the tub, lowering it as far as pos- 
sible in the center of the water. When this is done the heat will 
be absorbed equally from all sides and the tendency to warp 
excessively will have been overcome. 

Steel for Small Punches. 

When small punches are required to punch heavy stock or 
to operate at high speeds, never use drill rod or Stubs steel, for 
the reason that such steel is of the finest high carbon variety and 
will crystallize rapidly under concussion. In place of such ma- 
terial use one of the low grades of steel ; one which in order to 
harden it will be necessary to heat to white heat, and the punches 
will last much longer than if made from the best grades of steel. 

For small punches which are required to pierce thin, soft 
stock, or to operate at a slow speed, get the best grades of steel 
procurable, as for such uses the finer the grade the better results 
which will be obtained. 



Hardening a Blanking Die. 
In order to harden a blanking die properly great care should 

of the steel, and second in the 



be taken ; first in the 



heating 




Drawing Punch. Blank Holder. Die. 

FIG. 119. — WASH-BASIN DRAWING DIE. 



quenching. In all shops where dies or other tools which require 
hardening are constructed, a gas furnace or "muffle" should be 
used for heating, but when a "muffle" is not handy charcoal 
should be used. After a good clean fire has been built, all screw 
and dowel holes in the die should be plugged with fire clay or 
asbestos. By taking these precautions the tendency of the steel 
to crack around the holes is, as far as possible, eliminated. We 



THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. 167 

now heat the die to an even cherry red, so that the entire plate 
will be the same temperature ; then remove it from the fire and 
dip it endwise into the water (which should first be warmed 
slightly to take the chill out), being careful to dip down straight, 
and not to move it or shake it around as that would increase the 
possibility of the die warping, or shrinking excessively. After 
removing the die from the water it should be immediately 
warmed. Now grind the face of the die ; heat a thick piece of 
cast-iron red hot, and place the die upon it ; it can then be drawn 
evenly to any temper desired. By taking a piece of oil waste 
and wiping the face of the die as it is heating, the different colors 
will show up clear. When the color denoting the temper re- 
quired appears, remove the die and allow it to cool off slowly. 

Cracks in Dies — Their Cause. 

When a piece of tool steel in itself of no great commercial 
value is worked out and finished into an intricate die the labor 
cost amounting to a large sum, the steel is, of course, very valu- 
able ; and if cracks show after the hardening process, or the die 
is spoiled, it means a great loss to the establishment. 

Now in the first place, although we are apt to usually con- 
found cracks with hardening, very often the trouble can be 
traced to the preceding operations of annealing, forging and 
finishing. Of course there is a large number of dies spoiled 
through carelessness or inexperience in hardening, but still we 
believe there is as great an amount spoiled through imperfect 
preceding operations or through the operator not being familiar 
with the nature of the steel. 

A die may be carefully heated tO' give the proper temperature 
throughout, and may be quenched in the bath in the most ap- 
proved manner, but if it is not "slightly warmed" after removing 
it from the hardening bath, it is liable to crack. This reheating 
may be done in a number of ways. The best way is to hold the 
die over the fire until it is heated to a temperature sufficient to 
cause a few drops of water to steam when sprinkled on it. The 
heat will not be sufficient to make any of the temper colors 
appear. 

The author has been connected with one establishment where 
thousands of dies were made every year, and every die was re- 
heated after hardening, in the following manner : A large tank 
provided with a perforated tray with means for raising and lower- 



l68 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

ing it was used. The tank was filled with water to within' two 
inches of the top and a steam pipe was connected with it. Then 
the water was kept at the boiling point, and the die directly after 
hardening was placed upon the tray which was then lowered 
into the bath. 

We have known dies to crack while being in the forge when 
the blaze touched the die portion proper. This being brought 
about by a sudden heat and then a cold blast of air causing the 
steel to expand and then suddenly contract again, at a certain 
point, and as the consequent expansion and contraction in the 
die does not extend over the entire surface, the charge was local 
and cracks resulted. 

A die made from a blank cut from a bar and machined and 
worked out without annealing is liable to crack when subjected 
to the hardening process, particularly if the blank is for a blank- 
ing die of odd shape, as shown in Fig. 120. If annealed bar steel 
is used the necessity of reannealing is also imperative as the first 
annealing does not eliminate the liability of cracking. 

When it is not possible to anneal the die blank before finish- 
ing to size, the next best thing to do is to heat the die uniformly 
throughout to a red heat, then remove it from the fire and allow 
it to cool until black. It may then be reheated to the proper 
temperature and hardened. In a forming die the bulky portion 
has a tendency to contract away from the small portions, which 
being frail, harden first and do not alter their shape, while the 
bulky portion continues to contract unevenly, after the thin por- 
tion becomes ridged, and cracks are apt to appear when the tool 
is removed from the quenching. By heating the die to a high 
or red heat and then allowing it to cool to a black before the 
hardening heat this uneven contraction is to a certain extent pro- 
vided for. 

In hardening a die the quenching of it so that the frailest por- 
tion enters the bath first and hardens before the thickest por- 
tion, will most invariably cause cracks to appear, as unequal con- 
traction takes place and the heavy portion contracting the most, 
changes shape in attempting to draw with it the frailer portions. 
Another cause of cracks in dies is the use of improper means 
for grinding. When a die is ground on a machine on which 
no provision is made for water cooling, or where a fine wheel is 
used, cracks often result, coming about through the steel being 
unevenly heated during the grinding. Thus, by using a coarse 



THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. 



169 



wheel with a free water supply this disagreeable possibility will 
be eliminated. 

Hardening the Walls of a Round Die. 
Often, in die work, it is desired that the walls of a drawing 
die, for instance, or some other part, such as the inside of a 




FIG. 120. — BIvANKING DIE). 



hollow punch, should be hard and the remaining portion of the 
piece soft. This may be accomplished by proceeding as follows : 
Clamp the die or punch, as the case may be, between flanges on 



170 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



the ends of tubes, being sure to have the steel at the proper heat. 
Then allow a stream of cold water or brine to circulate through 
the tube and the metal will harden in depth as far as the inside 
edges of the flanges while the remaining portion will remain soft. 

Reannealing a Punch or Die Blank. 
Sometimes a piece of steel, which is to be used for a punch 




FIG. 121. — PUNCHES FOR PERFORATING HEAVY STOCK 



THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. 



171 



or die, upon starting to machine it, proves hard, although it has 
been annealed. When this is the case, never try to finish it before 
reannealing it; instead, rough it down, clean out the centers, if 
there are to be any, and anneal it over again. The time re- 
quired to reanneal the piece of steel will be more than made up 
in the machining of it. 

Warping of Long Punches in Hardening. 
Often after carefully hardening a long punch it will be found 
to have warped during the process, often to such a degree as to 
make it useless. There is a way to avoid this altogether, or at 
least the warp will be so slight as to not affect the efficiency of 
the tool. To insure against warping, plunge the steel, when at 
the proper heat, squarely into the bath, lowering as far as pos- 
sible into the center of the liquid. When this is done the heat 
will be absorbed equally from all sides and the tendency to warp 
excessively will have been eliminated. 

Hardening Very Small Punches. 
When a large number of very small piercing punches are to 
be hardened they should be packed in closed iron boxes and the 
box heated. When all the parts have reached the proper heat 
they should be entered into a bath of either oil or water, as the 
nature of the work may require, through a funnel. This will in- 
sure the entering of the parts vertically and prevent warping. 
Another way by which small punches may be heated uniform is 
by means of the lead bath. Keep the lead at the proper heat and 
cover the top with powdered charcoal and coke. 

Tempering Small Punches. 
Almost all large die shops in which any amount of hardening 
and tempering are done have discarded the method of tempering 
by colors, and have adopted the more reliable method of doing it 
in oil, gaging the heat by thermometer. A kettle containing 
the oil is placed on the fire and heated to the right temperature 
for the degree of temper desired in the work. The hardened 
parts are then thrown into the liquid until drawn. By this 
method there is no possibility of overdrawing, as it is impossible 
for the parts to become hotter than the oil. When tempering 
punches in this manner it is not necessary to brighten them be- 
fore the operation, and where a lot of such work is done, it will 



172 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

be accomplished much cheaper than if the old method were used ; 
besides the most satisfactory results will be attained. 

Hardening Fluids for Dies. 

We have heard a great deal about hardening fluids, for which 
it is claimed dies can be hardened better than in water or in brine. 
Such fluids are composed chiefly of acids and will rot the steel, 
and we should advise keeping away from them, as where it is 
not possible to harden die steel in clear water or strong brine, 
the steel is useless and should be dispensed with. When quench- 
ing the heated steel dip down straight and don't shake it about, 
but after keeping it stationary for a few seconds, move it around 
slowly, keeping it vertical all the time. When the die or punch 
is of an intricate shape, about three inches of oil on the top of 
the water will toughen it and contribute to helping the steel 
retain its shape while hardening, and prevent it from warping or 
cracking during the process. Lastly, immediately after harden- 
ing and before grinding, the steel should be placed on the fire 
and slightly warmed, to take the chill and contraction strain out 
and not laid aside for a while, as we have seen dies that were laid 
aside after hardening (that were intact) after a few hours, show 
cracks. 

Hardening Thick Round Dies. 

Often round dies, which are very thick in proportion to 
their diameter, contract excessively in the center during the 
hardening process, often to such a degree as to make them unfit 
for use. To overcome this tendency have an arrangement by 
which a stream of water may be forced through the hole without 
wetting the outside ; allowing the water to only come in contact 
with the inside of the die. By doing this the walls of the die will 
be hard while the outside will remain soft, as when the temper 
is drawn the hole will remain straight and true. In shops where 
grinding facilities are not at hand this method will work ex- 
cellently. If possible use strong brine for the hardening fluid. 

Hardening Poor Die Steel. 
Quite frequently in making dies we run across a piece of steel 
which after working will not respond satisfactorily to the usual 
hardening process. When this occurs prepare a solution com- 
posed of two handfuls of common salt and one ounce of corrosive 
sublimate to about six quarts of water and when the steel has 



THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF DIES. 



'^TZ 



reached a good red heat plunge into the bath. The corrosive 
subHmate gives toughness to the steel and the salt hardens. This 
solution is deadly poison; exercise care in using it. 

Tempering a Combination Cutting and Drawing Punch. 

After the face of the punch has been slightly sheared, and 
the edges of the drawing die sHghtly rounded and highly pol- 
ished, the punch is hardened and then drawn by laying it alter- 
nately on each of its four sides on a hot plate, tempering the 
cutting edges to a dark blue and leaving the inside or drawing 
die portion as hard as possible. When finishing the blanking 
portion of the punch, care has to be taken to do it so that the 
drawing portion will be perfectly central. 

Hardening and Tempering a Split Gang Punch. 
The best way to harden and temper a split gang punch is by 
the following method : It should first be heated and hardened in 
clear oil, dipping it from the back, and thus preventing — as far 
as possible — the legs from crawling in toward each other because 
of the channel between them. By dipping from the back this 
will be overcome, as by the time the cutting face is immersed 
the back will be hard and set. It should then be polished and 
tempered by drawing from the back to a dark blue to within % 
inch of the cutting faces and quenched when those portions are a 
dark straw color. 

Hardening and Tempering Large "Blanking" or "Cutting" Dies. 

Large "blanking" or "cutting" dies of the type shown in 
Figs. 122 to 127 require considerable skill and experience to 
harden and temper correctly. They should be carefully heated 
and then quenched into a large tank of water and when cold 
warmed on the fire to take the chill and strain out. 

Cutting dies consist of an upper "male" die or "punch," and 
the lower, or "female" die. They may be made in almost any 
size and shape for cutting out flat blanks in tin, iron, steel, alumi- 
nium, brass, copper, zinc, silver, paper, leather, cloth, etc. Ordi- 
narily, the lower die Is hardened and tempered to a degree best 
suited for the work, while the punch is left comparatively soft, 
so that it can be "hammered" up when worn. Sometimes, as in 
the case of playing-card dies, it is preferable to reverse this and 
make the punch hard, leaving the die soft. Circumstances de- 



174 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



termine whether any or how much "shear" should be given to the 
cutting edge. For ordinary work in tin, brass, etc., a moderate 
amount of shear is desirable. These dies require to be made with 
the utmost care, of materials specially adapted for the purpose, 
and by experienced and skillful workmen. Ordinarily, the steel 
cutting rings are welded to wrought-iron plates, after which they 




:^iG. 125. — ^die;. 



PIG. 127. — DIK. 



are hardened, carefully tempered and ground on special machin- 
ery. In some cases it is preferable to fasten the steel dies in 
cast-iron chucks or die-beds by means of keys or screws. This 
applies more particularly to small dies. For cutting thick iron, 
steel, brass, and other heavy metals both the die and punch should 
1)6 hard and provided with strippers. 



CHAPTER X. 

FORGING AND WELDING — TO ACCOMPLISH SATISFACTORY RESULTS 
IN THE FORGING OF STEEL AND IRON DROP FORGING. 

Welding Heats. 

In the welding of steel to steel or steel to iron without injur- 
ing the quality of the material, the process involved is one in 
which great care, judgment and skill are necessary, particularly 
in dealing with the degrees of heat. Because of its greater flexi- 
bility the welding heat of steel should be lower than that of iron 
and thus the more flexible the steel the harder it is to weld. 
Mild steel can be welded much more easily than high carbon or 
tool steel. Ordinary cast steel such as double shear steel, con- 
taining as it does a smaller proportion of carbon than "tool 
steel," may be easily welded, as its texture, which is very fibrous, 
is partly restored through hammering or rolling. Thus for all 
■edge tools for wood this steel will give good results as it will 
■carry a very keen cutting edge. 

A Good Welding Flux for Steel. 

A good flux for welding steel is sal-ammoniac and borax. 
The borax of commerce as sold by chemists is composed of a 
very large proportion of water, and in order to use this, it should 
be put into an iron or other suitable vessel and boiled over the 
fire until all the water is expelled, after which it should be ground 
to a powder before it is used. When it is desired to mix sal- 
ammoniac with borax the proportions are about i6 parts borax to 
I of sal-ammoniac. In heating a piece of steel for forging it 
should be placed in the center of a close hollow fire and the wind 
put on very sparingly, so as to allow the mass to heat equally 
through and through. If, on the other hand, it is put into the fire 
and the blast turned on full the outside of the metal will become 
red hot before the center; therefore the expansion of the outside 
away from the center will cause internal strains, which will not 
be visible until the tool is hardened, and then the hardener will be 
blamed. 



176 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Heating Steel for Forging. 
A great many smiths say that steel should not be heated above 
a cherry red ; but the best way is to heat the steel to as high a 
heat as it will stand with safety, and draw down under steam 
hammer, if there is one handy. Then the whole mass will draw 
down in the center as well as around the outside, where, on the 
contrary, by heating to a cherry red one would only be drawing 
the outside away from the center, which would show fracture 
when cooled. We do not mean that the steel should be heated 
high when the tool is nearly finished ; then the cherry red heat will 
do, being also careful not to hammer after the red has disappeared, 
but put it back in the fire and heat as evenly as possible. Sulphur 
is the greatest enemy to contend with in the heating of steel. 
To fully illustrate the effects, heat a piece of cast steel almost to 
the scintillating heat, and by holding a piece of sulphur against 
it, it will drop to the floor, the same as a piece of sealing wax 
would do with a match. A man who is forging and welding iron 
should never be asked by the foreman to dress a tool, as that 
man is blind to the colors of steel which reveal themselves in the 
tempering. 

Steel for Tools Which Require to he Forged. 

In purchasing tool steel for the various kinds of tools that are 
used in metal working it is best to state to the steel maker what 
kind of tools the steel is required for, as steel that is suitable for 
cold chisels is too low in carbon for lathe and planer tools. High 
carbon steel cools far quicker under the blows of the hammer 
than low, and the scales that fall from the former are small and 
silky while the latter are large. 

The amount of working one will get out of a tool which has 
been properly forged, tempered and ground is unlimited. It is a 
bad economy to buy cheap steel for tools of any kind. It only 
results in worry and vexation and poor work. 

High Grade Steel Forgings in America. 
Few people are probably aware of the important change that 
has taken place in machine construction in this country as a 
direct result of the improvements in the manufacture and forging 
of crucible cast steel, first introduced by the Bethlehem Steel Com- 
pany, Pennsylvania, U. S. A. Without these improvements the 
large power units now used in the electric generating stations 



FORGING AND WELDING. 1/7 

would have been impossible, for no forgings could have been 
obtained that would have been able to sustain the tremendous 
strains of such machinery. When steel forgings were first em- 
ployed for large work they were generally considered inferior to 
iron forgings, because, as is well known, steel is not as easily 
forged as iron and is more easily injured in the process, while 
the methods used in forging were not adapted to the requirements 
of the new material. The improvements in the manufacture of 
steel came through the efforts of the government to obtain steel 
suitable for large guns and the parts of marine engines, which, 
according to law, had to be built in this country, and of Ameri- 
can material. A brief history of how the change of iron forgings 
to high-grade steel forgings came about, and the manner in which 
hollow shafts are forged, is given in the following and is taken 
from a paper by Mr. H. F. J. Porter, read before the 1902 meet- 
ing of the Engine Builders' Association : 

At the time George H. Corliss built his Centennial engine he 
had his own smithshop in which his shafts and other engine forg- 
ings were built up out of small fagots of wrought iron. This 
was about the time when steel began to encroach upon iron in the 
trades. Before this time wrought iron was a staple article in the 
market. The quality of this material, coming from the rolling 
mills, was very high, demands for high grades having brought 
about methods of precaution which supplied the trades with ex- 
tra refined iron, very free from slag and dirt. The small forges 
sparsely scattered about the country were equipped with ham- 
mers of ten tons falling weight with top steam, sufficient in capa- 
city to thoroughly work and weld together the few fagots of 
iron which were required to build up the moderate sized forgings 
which the various industries demanded. When steel made its ap- 
pearance, however, manufacturers generally began to appreciate 
the fact that the market contained a new material, stronger and 
more reliable than wrought iron. Desirous of having the forged 
parts of their mechanisms smaller and lighter, they attempted at 
once to obtain forgings made of this metal. Had the forgers 
made proper efforts to acquaint themselves with the nature of 
the new material before attempting to supply.it, a very different 
condition of affairs would have come about, not only in the forg- 
ing industry, but in the steel industry at large, which resulted 
from the first unintelligent effort at production. At the meet- 
ing of the Railway Master Mechanics and Master Car Builders, 



1/8 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

at Old Point Comfort, in 1899, Captain (now Admiral) Robley 
D. Evans delivered an address in which he said : 

"In 1882 I had the good fortune to be a member of what is 
known as the first advisory board for rebuilding- the navy. It 
was an awfully hot summer, and fifteen of us, rather impatient in- 
spirit, got together in Washington, presided over by Admiral 
John Rodgers. When we looked the field over, we found that 
we had no navy at all ; we were hopelessly behind the age, and it 
seemed hardly worth while to rebuild our navy. I shall never 
forget as long as I live the trouble I caused in that small conven- 
tion by proposing that we should build steel ships. I was the 
original steel man, and when I proposed that all ships in future 
should be built of steel. Admiral Rodgers adjourned the board 
for three weeks to prevent a fight." 

Now the animus referred to by Admiral Evans was induced 
by the fact that forgings which were being supplied at this time 
were of just such a type as might be expected to be produced by 
men who had not acquainted themselves with the requirements of 
the new material. While some were excellent in every way, others 
were different in strength, or contained concealed cavities and 
were unreliable in general. The supplies of material running so ir- 
regular in quality reflected unfavorably upon the steel industry at 
large and developed a prejudice against steel generally, from 
which it has scarcely recovered in the minds of many users 
of forgings, even at the present day. It was fortunate for the 
country that the advisory board referred to contained as stalwart 
a champion of steel as Admiral Evans, for after they had visited 
the various ordnance works abroad and had seen steel worked 
(properly, they returned home and recommended to the Secretar}' 
of the Navy Mr. Tracy, that by all means the new navy should 
be built of this metal, and as there were no properly equipped 
steel forges in this country, one would have to be built to furnish 
the necessary armor, guns and engine forgings required in the 
construction of modern naval war vessels. Meanwhile, this board 
had overcome, through the good offices of its secretary, the 
personal objections heretofore existing on the part of Sir Joseph 
Whitworth to the use of his special steel casting and forging 
processes elsewhere than in his own works, which were con- 
sidered foremost in the manufacturing of ordnance. Without 
entering into the details which accompanied the immediate estab- 
lishment in this countrv of the great ordnance works of the 



FORGING AND WELDING. 179 

Bethlehem Steel Company, it is sufficient to say that in their 
■equipment not only were special appliances in use in this English 
works duplicated, but their size was doubled. A contract was 
also entered into at the same time by which the great works of 
Schneider & Co., of Le Creusot, France, which stood first among 
the makers of armor plate, were also duplicated at the Bethle- 
hem plant. Thus there arose in this country a forging plant at 
•once larger and superior to any in the world. 

During the years this plant was being erected there were 
many engineers who, appreciating the superior advantages of steel 
forgings when properly produced over those made of wrought 
iron, systematically sent abroad for their steel forgings. It was not 
until 1889 that the country obtained its first high-grade steel 
■commercial forgings from the Bethlehem works. These had 
been gladly specified by the engineers above mentioned who were 
impatiently waiting to get their steel forgings nearer home than 
in Europe. Machine and tool builders of this country were thus 
made acquainted for the first time with steel forgings intelli- 
gently produced. There are to this day many users of steel forg- 
ings who, not having carefully investigated the methods con- 
sidered necessary to produce them, think that a steel forging 
is made by merely hammering a rolled steel billet to the form 
required ; and such as order their forgings without specifying 
more definitely the grade called for by the special service to 
which the forging is to be submitted may get a forging of that 
type. The forging industry has grown from the blacksmith 
shop, a once familiar adjunct to an engine works, and has become 
a specialty; and a modern steel forge is not now thought com- 
plete unless it melts its own raw material and converts it into 
the finished product under the supervision of chemists, metallurg- 
ists, physicists and microscopists. 

How Holloiv Shafts Are Forged. 

There are two ways of making a forging hollow. The ordi- 
nary way of getting rid of the center of a forging is simply to 
bore it out. After boring, it is tempered and thus the strength is 
restored which was taken away with the material which was 
in the center. 

Another way of getting rid of the center of large forgings 
is to forge them hollow. A person who has not considered the 
subject carefully would naturally think that the first thing to do in 



l8o - HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

making a hollow forging would be to cast a hollow ingot. It has 
been mentioned that there were various defects which occur in 
ingots, the most serious of which are "segregation" and "piping" 
and that it is in the center and upper portion where those defects 
occur. If an ingot were to be cast hollow, a solid core of fire- 
brick or similar material would replace the center metal, and 
instead of one on the outside there would be two cooling surfaces, 
one on the outside and one around the core, and the position of 
the last cooling would be transferred to an annular ring, midway 
between these surfaces, where the "piping" and "segregation" 
. would collect. This would not be satisfactory, because the metal 
there is what must be depended upon for the strength of the 
hollow forging. It is necessary, therefore, to collect the "piping" 
and "segregation" in the center and the top, where the metal has 
been added to the original ingot for the purpose. 

Then having cut off the top and bored out the center, the 
"piping" and "segregation" are entirely eliminated and what is 
left is as sound and homogeneous a piece of steel as can be 
obtained. 

After the hole has been bored in the ingot, the next process is 
to re-heat it, and, as before explained, this process is not as de- 
licate a one as if the ingot were solid. The heat affects the center 
equally with the interior and they expand together and the 
danger of cracking is not incurred. When the ingot is re- 
heated a steel mandrel is put through its hollow center, and sub- 
jecting the two to hydraulic pressure the metal is forced down 
and out over the mandrel. Thus an internal anvil is practically 
inserted into the forging and there is, therefore, really much less 
than one-half the amount of metal to work on than if the piece 
were solid. 

When the work of shaping is completed the forging is re- 
heated to the proper temperature and then either annealed in the 
usual manner or plunged into a tempering bath of oil or brine, to 
set the fine grain permanently that has been established by the re- 
heating. A mild annealing follows to relieve any surface or other 
strains that may have been occasioned by the rapid cooling. 

Hollow forgings oil-tempered and annealed are considered the 
best grade of forgings made, and any forgings made otherwise, 
although they may be suitable for the service to which they may 
be applied, cannot be looked upon in any other manner than as 
of an inferior cfrade. 



FORGING AND WELDING. lOl 

That Steel forgings of such high grade were being manufac- 
tured for commercial purposes in this country was first brought 
to the attention of manufacturers generally at the World's Fair 
in Chicago. Here were exhibited stationary engine forgings 
which compared favorably with those sent over by European 
forges. The Ferris wheel shaft, 45 feet long and 32 inches out- 
side diameter, with a 16-inch hole through it, represented the 
largest made up to that time. The soliciting of orders for such 
forgings, however, at once aroused the latent prejudice still ex- 
isting against steel forgings, and the prices demanded being some- 
what in excess of those which wrought iron or ordinary steel 
forgings could be obtained for, prevented at first the very rapid 
introduction of this product into the commercial field. 

Difficulties Encountered in Introducing High-Grade Forgings. 

It hardly seemed necessary to explain to an engineer or any 
one authorized to purchase, and therefore presumably competent, 
that if he wanted material to sustain severe usage in the nature of 
alternating stresses, to which all forgings are subjected, he should 
select a material possessing a very high elastic limit. And yet it 
Avas not unusual to find that those very people preferred to use 
wrought iron for their engine crosshead and crank pins and 
shafts in preference to steel, because, as they said, "steel being 
crystalline is brittle and snaps off suddenly under such services 
as that under consideration, while iron having fiber, is tougher 
and yields before breaking." Most of these men know better, 
but had not given the subject sufficient thought, or they would 
have perceived that their statements were not consistent. They 
said that the steel connecting rods they had tried had broken off 
short without any warning, while rods made of wrought iron had 
simply bent up, and after having been straightened out were re- 
placed as good as new. 

These people did not stop to think that a steel rod that broke 
off had done so at its ultimate strength, or under a stress of from 
80,000 to 90,000 pounds per square inch, whereas the iron rod 
which had doubled up had done so at its yielding point of 25,000 
to 30,000 pounds per square inch. In other words, their engines 
with wrought iron rods were failing all over the country under 
loads about one-third what they were standing up to when sup- 
plied with steel rods, yet the men were blaming the steel for help- 
ing them out of their troubles. 



l82 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Then again they complained that steel shafts and crank pins 
heated up, while wrought iron ran cool. When it was proved to 
them that laboratory experiments showed the coefficient of friction 
of these metals to be the same, and that any difiference in heating 
was caused by local circumstances, such as poor lubrication, ex- 
cessive pressure, etc., they said they did not care for laboratory 
experiments. They had an engine in one place with a steel shaft 
that never would run cool, while another with a wrought-iron 
shaft had never given any trouble, and they were passing judg- 
ment on their own experience. Persistent exposure of these fal- 
lacies gradually brought about a change in sentiment. 

"Cold Crystallization" Docs Not Occur. 
It took a long time to persuade people who had seen broken 
forgings which showed a coarse crystalline section that the 
metal had not crystallized from shock or vibration in service, 
but had been forged in such a manner that the crystallized 
condition of the ingot from which the forging had been 
made had not been changed by the forging process or by 
subsequent heat treatment. And these are the people even now 
who consider themselves conservative, who would rather have 
their forgings made of a mild steel which is weak, than of a high- 
carbon steel which is strong, simply because the old ideas are not 
yet eradicated from their minds. Tests were made at the gOA'- 
ernment testing bureau at Watertown by rapidly bending bars 
forward and backward within their elastic limit, with the follow- 
ing results, and these have given engineers an idea of the com- 
parative endurance of wrought iron, steel and nickel steel, r.i 
such ser-vice as that to which crank pins, shafts, etc., are subject. 

Tests of Steel Under Repeated Stresses. 

Under a Fiber Stress of 40,000 Pounds per Square Inch. 

Wrought iron breaks after 50,000 alternations of stress. 
.15 p. c. carbon steel " " 170,000 " " " 

.25 p. c. " " " " 229,000 " " " 

•35 P-C. " " " " 317,000 

•45 p. c. " " " " 976,000 " " " 

3% p. c. nickel steel, carbon .25 to .30 p. c, 1,850,000 alternations of stress. 
4^/2 P- c. " " " .25 to .30 p. c, 2,360,000 " " '' 

55^ p. c. " " " .25 to .30 p. c, 4,370,000 " " 

Charcoal. 
The best qualities of charcoal are made from oak, maple, beech 



FORGING AND WELDING. 183 

and chestnut. Between 5 and 17 per cent of coal will be ob- 
tained when the wood has been properly burned. A bushel of 
coal from hardwood weighs from 29 to 31 pounds and from 
pine 28 to 30 pounds. 

Welding Powder for Iron and Steel. — For welding iron and 
steel a composition has lately been patented in Belgium, consisting 
of iron filings, 40 parts ; borax, 20 parts ; balsam of copaiba or 
some other resinous oil, 2 parts, and sal-ammoniac, 3 parts. They 
are mixed, heated and pulverized. The process of welding is 
much the same as usual. The surfaces to be welded are powdered 
with the composition and then brought to a cherry red heat, at 
which the powder melts, when the portions to be united are taken 
from the fire and joined. If the pieces to be welded are too 
large to be introduced at the same time into the forge, one can 
be first heated with the welding powder to a cherry red heat and 
then others afterward to a white heat, after which the welding 
may be effected. 

To Make Edge-Tools from Cast-Steel and Iron. — This method 
consists in fixing a clean piece of wrought iron, brought to a 
welding heat, in the center of the mould, then pouring in melted 
steel, so as to entirely envelop the iron, and then forging the 
mass into the shape required. 

To Weld Cast-iron. 

Take 3 parts of good class white sand, refined solution fost- 
ering and rock salt of each i part ; heat the pieces to be welded 
in a charcoal fire, occasionally taking out and dipping into the 
composition, until they are of a proper heat to weld. Then 
take immediately to the anvil and weld together. If done care- 
fully by one who understands welding iron, there will be a good 
strong weld. 

Welding Composition for Cast-Steel. — Take borax, 10 parts ; 
sal-ammoniac, i part ; grind or pound them roughly together, then 
fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care to con- 
tinue the heat until the spume has disappeared from the surface. 
When the liquid appears clear, the composition is ready to 
be poured out to cool and concrete ; afterward, being ground 
to a fine powder, it is ready for use. To use this composition, 
the steel to be welded is first raised to a bright yellow heat, 
it is then dipped into the welding powder, and again placed in 



184 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

the fire until it attains the same degree of heat as before; it is 
then ready to be placed under the hammer. 

How to Restore Overheated Steel. 

A number of receipts for compositions which will restore over- 
heated steel are given in the following: 

To Restore Overheated Cast-Steel. — Take 1% pounds borax, 
% pound sal-ammoniac, ^ pound prussiate potash, i ounce 
rosin. Pound the above fine, add a gill each of water and alcohol. 
Put in an iron kettle, and boil until it becomes paste. Do not boil 
too long or it will become hard on cooling. 

To Restore Overheated Steel. — Borax 3 pounds ; sal-ammon- 
iac, I pound ; prussiate potash, ^2 pound ; alcohol, i gill ; soft 
water, i pint. Put into an iron pan and hold over a slow fire until 
it comes to a slow boil and until the liquid matter evaporates ; be 
careful to stir it well from the bottom and let it boil slow. This 
receipt is very valuable ; no matter how badly the steel is over- 
heated it will restore and make it as durable as ever. 

To Restore Overheated Steel and Improve Poor Steel. 

Borax, 3 ounces ; sal-ammoniac, 8 ounces ; prussiate of potash, 
3 ounces; blue clay, 2 ounces; rosin, 1I4 pounds; water, i gill; 
alcohol, I gill. Put all over a slow fire ; let it simmer until it dries 
to a powder. Heat the steel not above a cherry red ; dip into this 
powder and afterwards hammer. 

Composition to Toughen Steel. — Rosin 2I/2 pounds ; tallow 2I4 
pounds; pitch 114 pounds. Melt together and apply to the steel 
while hot. 

Pointer. 

Rosin on the blacksmith's forge improves and toughens steel. 
When the tool is hot, dip it into the rosin, then hammer. 

To Weld Buggy Springs. 
To weld buggy springs first scarf one piece of spring, and 
then weld onto it a piece of spring cut off about three-quarters 
of an inch longer than the first ; heat and upset until one-quarter 
thicker at end than spring scarf. Now upset the other piece 
until as near thickness of first piece as possible ; scarf and weld. 
Leave a trifle heavier at weld, and if the work has been done 
properly the weld can be warranted not to break. Use a 4I/2 
pound hammer in making this weld, and keep at it until finished. 



FORGING AND WELDING. 



185 



A French Welding Flux. 
In using a flux, as is necessary when welding steel, or^ iron 
and steel, it is oftentimes difficult to keep the flux in place on 




FIG. 128. — 1,500-POUND FRICTION ROLL FORGING DROP WITH 
GEARLESS LIFTER. 



account of its quickly melting and running off the weld. M. J. 
Lafitte, Paris, France, has devised a flux consisting of a borax 
mixture in which is incorporated a fine wire netting to hold it 



186 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




FORGING AND WELDING. 187 

together. It is rolled out in thin sheets and divided into squares 
which are easily broken apart for use. Tests of steel specimens 
welded in the French government works show a remarkably 
high efficiency of the welds. This is due to the high protective 
power of the flux which prevents the formation of oxide on the 
surface of the welds. 

Compound for Welding Steel. — The following composition 
has in a number of cases proved superior to borax for welding 
steel : Mix coarsely powdered borax with a thin paste of prussi- 
ate blue ; then let it dry. 

Fluxes for Soldering and Welding. 

For iron or steel, borax or sal-ammoniac ; tinned iron, rosin or 
chloride of zinc ; copper and brass, sal-ammoniac or chloride zinc ; 
zinc, chloride of zinc ; lead, tallow or rosin ; lead and tin pipes, 
rosin and sweet oil. 

Substiftite for Borax in Welding. 

Copperas, 2 ounces ; saltpeter, i ounce ; common salt, 6 ounces ; 
black oxide of manganese, i ounce ; prussiate of potash, i ounce. 

All pulverized- and mixed with 3 pounds good welding sand. 

High carbon steel can be welded with this at a lower heat 
than is required with borax. 

Drop-Forgings. 

Drop forging is the art of forging with drop hammers and 
may be designated as "machine blacksmithing." The inception of 
the art dates back to about 1853 when Colonel Samuel Colt 
adopted drop-hammers to make parts for firearms. The ma- 
chines, processes and tools used in the art have since been greatly 
improved and the products of the drop forging industry are nov/ 
used in a majority of the mechanical arts. Figs. 130 to 140 
illustrate parts produced by drop forging. 

The dies used for making drop-forgings are made in two 
parts. One part (the upper) is fastened in the ram or hammer 
of the drop, which moves vertically between two uprights or guides 
and is raised by means of friction rolls controlled by the operator. 
The other part of the die (the lower) is fixed in the anvil o^ 
base of the hammer. The ram raises until released, when it falls 
instantly, striking with the upper die the heated bar of metal 
placed on the bottom die and forcing it into impressions in both 
dies. By a series of such blows the complete article is formed. 



l88 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

An idea of the extensive use to which drop-forgings have 
been put may be gained from the fact that J. H. Williams & 
Co., of Brooklyn, N. Y., a company devoted exclusively to the 
making of drop-forgings, started in 1889 with a forging plant of 
three drop-hammers, and it now consists of forty-three drop- 
hammers, with trip-hammers, steam hammers, upsetting ma- 
chines and other apparatus. 

The necessary dies used to produce drop-forging of special 
shapes and sizes are usually made from a drawing or model, pre- 
ferably the latter as it facilitates designing the dies and allows 




FIG. 130. — DROP-FORGKD CRANK SHAFTS. 

of figuring the cost of the tools much easier than could be done 
from a drawing. 

In making drop-forging dies the die sinker must know whether 
the drawing and model show finished or forging size ; he needs 
also to know the allowance desired in machining. It is usual 
to add 1-32 inch on each surface to be machined unless the piece 
is to be finished by grinding or polishing only, in which case i-ioo 
inch is allowed ; surfaces not to be machined or ground are made 
close to size. Forgings vary slightly in thickness — say from 
i-ioo inch to 1-32 inch — depending on their shape and the ma- 
terial used. They can, however, be made to gage by a re-striking 
operation ; this operation requires separate dies and entails addi- 
tional expense. 



FORGING AND WELDING. 



189 



I^QQ^ggj^^^ 




FIG. 131. — DROP-FORGED WRENCHES. 



190 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



In addition to forging dies, the cost and endurance of which 
■depend upon the work required of them, trimming dies are neces- 




FIG. 132. — SPEICIAL DROP-FORGINGS. 



#5?^ 




^ 



^.. 





FIG. 133. — SPECIAL, DROP-FORGING. 



sary to remove the surplus metal thrown out between the forg- 
ing dies in working. 

Before using the finished set of dies for forging, a lead proof 
is struck up which is submitted to the customer. The proof often 



FORGING AND WELDING. IQI 

varies from the model or drawing by what is called draft. This 
is the taper necessary on the forgings to allow of drawing them 
from the dies while working, and it averages about seven degrees. 
It can be obtained by adding to or taking from the forging; 
usually the draft metal is added. 

Establishments devoted exclusively to the manufacture of drop 
forgings carry a large and assorted stock of material from which 
to make the forgings. But in new dies, where the size of metal 
required cannot be determined until they are tried in the hammer, 
delays in obtaining the right sizes sometimes occur. As poor m..^- 
terial cannot be used, drop-forgings are, therefore, not only 
superior to hand-forgings tfecause the metal is improved by the 



if 





FIG. 134. — DROP-PORGED PIG. 135. — DROP-FORGED 

GFAR. BRACKETS. 

forging operation, but also because the nature of the process 
requires a good quality of material. 

Forgings from steel of high carbon usually require annealing 
before they can be machined. While making drop-forgings they 
are carefully brushed with steel wire brushes to remove the scale, 
but if they are to be machined they are pickled in diluted sul- 
phuric acid to insure the complete removal of the hard outer skin. 
Often small drop-forgings are tumbled instead of pickled. 

Those who require drop-forgings will be saved undue expense 
if they inform manufacturers of the use for which the forgings 
are intended. The price is largely affected by the quantities made 
with one setting of the tools. It costs as much to set dies for lOO 
as for 1,000 pieces, and the forging work is also more costly m 
small lots. Prices for special drop-forging are made per piece, 



192 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING, 



not per pound, and vary with the nature of the work, the material 
used and the quantity taken. 

The cheapest drop-forgings in the long run are those most uni- 
form in size and quality and close to finish dimensions, thus sav- 
ing labor, time, tools and money. 

Directions for Setting up Forging Drop-Hammers. 
It is very important to have a good foundation, and we recom- 
mend as the cheapest and best, when it can be obtained, a log 
large enough in diameter at the butt end for the drop to stand 
on, and long enough to enter the ground six or eight feet. 





FIG. 136. — SPECIAL DROP- 
FORGINGS. 



PIG. 137. — DROP-FORGED 
BRACKET. 



First dig a hole one foot deeper than is necessary to receive the 
log, and large enough to leave a space of about one foot all 
around it. Before the log is put into the hole, fill the bottom with 
grout one foot deep ; then, after placing the log in the hole so that 
it will stand perpendicular, grout it nearly to the top of the 
ground. 

For light drops, it will do very well to put a large flat stone 
under the bottom of the log and fill it with earth, well stamped 
down. Now adze the top of the log level ; then make a depres- 
sion in the center of the surface, about six inches square and two 
inches deep, with a groove about one inch wide leading to the 



FORGING AND WELDING. 



193 



edge of the block, to allow the scales and dirt to pass off, and 
not to get under the drop to make it rock or it will be unsteady. 
When, because of the size of the drop, or for other reasons, a log 
cannot be obtained large enough to put it on, take numbers, say 
one foot square, and bolt enough of them together to make it of 
-suitable size, when set up on end to receive the drop. Grout, and 
fill in, in the same manner as for the log. Chestnut and oak are 
the best. 

For forging drops with hammers weighing 1,000 to 2,000 
pounds, some manufacturers build a masonry foundation 8 to 12 
feet square at the base, tapering to the size of anvil shape at the 
top, and 10 to 14 feet deep, with about 4 feet in height of oak 





FIG. 139. — DROP-FORGED 
YOKE. 




FIG. 138. — DROP-FORGED 
HOOK. 



FIG. 140.— DROP-FORGED 
SHAFT BRACKET. 



timbers at the top bolted together on end. The hole around this 
foundation is then filled with grouting. If only a rock or stone 
foundation can be had, place about one-half inch of sheet rubber 
or rubber belting under the bottom of the drop. There is danger 
of getting a foundation too solid for a drop. There should be 
some elasticity, and when set on a log or timber the desired 
effect is obtained ; and when placed upon stone the rubber belting 
is sufficient. A suitable foundation having now been obtained, 
and the drop fastened to the same on a line with a shaft that is 
to drive it, brace the drop at the top by rods, one end of which 
can be secured to the building, and the other to the lifter, in 
holes provided for that purpose. The belts m.ust run back away 
from the operator. 



194 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Government Use of Nickel Steel for Forgings. 

With a view to their utilization in the various mechanical de- 
partments of the government of the United States, the Bureau of 
Steam Engineering has undertaken extensive experiments with 
various metals. One result already is the adoption of nickel steel for 
forgings and other parts of steam engines. It is contended that 
the principal advantage of nickel steel over ordinary carbon steel 
for forgings lies in the relation which the elastic limit bears to 
the tensile strength, the former being in a sense the true strength 
of the metal. The elastic limit of nickel steel is much higher 
than that of carbon steel of the same tensile strength and elonga- 
tion, very often 30 per cent higher and in some cases as much 
as 50 per cent higher. The principal drawback to the commer- 
cial use of nickel steel has been the first cost of producing it, 
which in many cases is higher than the cost of ordinary finished 
forgings. 

A decided virtue of nickel steel, according to government 
report, is the facility with which a low carbon steel will harden, 
it being the practice after a forging is forged and rough ma- 
chined, to heat it and quench it in oil, which hardens it very 
much; afterward the forging is submitted to an annealing pro- 
cess which removes any strains set up in the metal by the sudden 
cooling which it receives. Nickel steel, after the first cost of 
production, is not much more expensive to forge than any carbon 
steel that runs over ,40 per cent carbon, and about the same care 
is necessary in heating and forging as is required by a high car- 
bon steel. 



CHAPTER XI. 

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, PROCESSES, KINKS, POINTS AND TABLES 
FOR USE IN METAL WORKING. 

Increasing the Size of a Reamer When Worn. 

To increase a reamer to size when w*orn, burnish the face of 
each tooth with a hardened burnisher, which can be made from a 
three-cornered file nicely polished on the corners. This will in- 
crease the size from 2 to lo thousandths in diameter. Then hone 
back to the required size. 

To make a tap or reamer cut larger than itself, put a piece 
of waste in one flute, enough to crowd it over and cut out on one 
side only. In larger sizes -(1% inch or over) put a strip of tin 
on one side and let it follow the tap through. 

To Case-Harden Cast-iron. 

Heat to a red heat, roll in a composition consisting of equal 
parts of prussate of potash, sal-ammoniac and saltpeter, pulver- 
ized and thoroughly mixed. Plunge while yet hot into a bath con- 
taining 2 ounces of prussate of potash and 2 ounces of sal-am- 
moniac to each gallon of cold water. 

Rules for Calcidating Speed. 

The diameter of driven given to find its -number of revolu- 
tions : 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of 
revolutions and divide the product by the diameter of the driven. 
The quotient will be the number of revolutions of the driven. 

The diameter and revolutions of the driver being given to find 
the diameter of the driven that shall make any number of revolu- 
tions : 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of 
revolutions and divide the product by the number of required rev- 
olutions of the driven. The quotient will be its diameter. 

To ascertain the size of pulleys for given speeds : 

Rule. — Multiply all the diameters of the drivers together and 
all the diameters of driven together ; divide the drivers by the 



196 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

driven. Multiply the answer by the known number of revolu- 
tions of main shaft. 

Improved Soldering or Tinning Acid. 
Muriatic acid i pound ; put into it all the zinc it will dissolve 
and I ounce of sal-ammoniac, then it is ready for use. 

Lubricant for Water Cuts. 

Strong sal soda water or soap water is much better than clear 
water to use where water cuts are being taken, either on lathe or 
planer. 

Babbitting. 

Put a piece of rosin the size of a walnut into your Babbitt ; 
stir thoroughly, then skim. It makes poor Babbitt run better, 
and improves it. Babbitt heated just hot enough to light a pine 
stick will run in places with the rosin in, where, without it, it 
would not. It is also claimed that rosin will prevent blowing 
when pouring in damp boxes. 

Laying Out Work. 
In laying out work on planed or smooth surfaces of steel or 
iron, use blue vitriol and water on the surface. This will copper- 
over the surface nicely, so that all lines will show plainly. If on 
oily surfaces, add a little oil of vitriol ; this will eat the oil off 
and leave a nicely coppered surface. 

Lubricant for Working Alinninuin. 
Use kerosene oil (coal oil) for drilling or turning aluminum. 

To Prevent Rust. 
To prevent rust on tools, use vaseline, to which a small 
amount of powdered gum camphor has been added ; heat together 
over a slow fire. 

Lubricant for Drilling Hard Steel. 
Use turpentine instead of oil when drilling hard steel, saw 
plates, etc. It will drill readily when vou could not touch it with 
oil. 

Coppering Polished Steel Surfaces. 
To copper the surface of iron or steel wire, have the wire per- 
fectly clean, then wash with the fcillowino- solution, when it will 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. I97 

present at once a coppered surface : Rain water, 3 pounds ; sul- 
phate of copper, I pound. 

To Blue Steel Without Heating. 
To blue steel without heating, apply nitric acid ; then wipe off 
the acid, clean, oil and burnish. 

To Remove Scale from Steel. 
Scale may be removed from steel articles by pickling in water 
with a little sulphuric acid in it, and w^hen the scale is loosened, 
brushing it with sand and stiff brush. 

To Distinguish Wrought and Cast-iron from Steel. 
Elsiner produces a bright surface by polishing or filing, and 
applies a drop of nitric acid, which is allowed to remain there 
for one or two minutes, and then washed ofif with water. The 
spot will look a pale ashy gray on wrought-iron, a brownish black 
on steel, a deep black on cast-iron. It is the carbon present in var- 
ious proportions which produces the difference in appearance. 

Anti-Friction Alloy for Journal Boxes. 
Zinc, 17 parts; copper, i part; antimony, I/2 part. 
This possesses unsurpassable anti-friction qualities and docs 
not require the protection of outer castings of the harder metal. 

Solder for Aluminum. 

A great drawback to the use of aluminum for many purposes 
is the difficulty of soldering it. A number of solders are known 
that are fairly successful when manipulated by skillful hands. 
The following one was recommended by Prof. E. Wilson in a 
paper read before the Society of Arts. The constituents are 28 
pounds block-tin, 3.5 pounds lead, 7 pounds spelter, and 14 
pounds phosphor-tin. The phosphor-tin should contain 10 per 
cent phosphor. The following instructions should be followed 
when soldering aluminum : Clean off all dirt and grease from the 
surface of the metal with benzine, apply the solder with a copper 
bit, and when the molten solder covers the surface of the metal, 
scratch through the solder with a wire brush, by which means the 
oxide is broken and taken up. Quick manipulation is neces- 
sary. 

Case-Hardening zvith Kerosene. 

There is a process of hardening steel by petroleum which is 



198 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

not generally known. The article to be treated is first thoroughly 
rubbed with ordinary washing soap, and then placed in a char- 
coal fire and heated to a cherry red. Then it is plunged into 
petroleum. There is no fear of the oil igniting, but it is wise 
not to have a naked light too near. Parts hardened by this 
method are said to have no cracks nor do they warp, and after 
hardening, owing to being white, can be finished without any 
cleaning or grinding. 

Case-Hardening Cones and Cups. 

For case-hardening small pieces, such as the cups and cones 
used in bicycle bearings, the following method has been found to 
work well in practice. It is somewhat different from the usual 
plan followed by case-hardeners in bicycle factories : First, sur- 
round the article with yellow prussate of potash, then with leather 
(old boots will do), then with clay, and pack in an iron box of 
some sort, usually a piece of gas pipe. Plug up the ends with 
clay ; place the whole in the fire and keep at a red heat for four 
or five hours, then quench in water. The usual difficulty with 
vrorkers in a small way is to keep the articles at a uniform tem- 
perature for such a long time. 

Drills. 

As a rule, the cutting edges of twist drills are formed with 
a cutter of correct form to produce a radial line of cutting edge; 
thus a different form of cutter is required for milling the flutes 
of straight flute drills. 

Drills are generally made of .002-inch or .003-inch taper per 
foot for clearance and have the major part of land on the periph- 
ery ground away for the same purpose, about .003 inch on a side. 

Drills for brass should be made with straight flutes ; those 
for cast-iron and tool-steel should in most cases have spiral flutes, 
at an angle of about 16 deg. ; soft steel, 22 deg. 

Chucking drills, for use on cored holes, or as followers of 
solid twist drills, are quite often provided with from three to 
eight flutes ; the latter, on large work, are very efficient. Care 
should be taken in grinding, to insure all teeth cutting simultan- 
eously. These tools are made of solid, shell, and inserted type. 

The inserted type are preferable for straight flutes over 2% 
inches, and for angular flutes over 4 inches, on account of cost. 

For drilling a large hole in a spindle the latter should be sup- 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. I99 

ported in a back rest, and the drill entered through a drill bush- 
ing to start perfectly true. Then, by using a drill with one cut- 
ting edge and ground on the outside, a long, straight hole may 
be readily produced. An ordinary twist drill will do practically 
the same if the center is made female, the only objection being 
-that this form is much more difficult to grind. 

Reamer Practice. 

The following particulars in regard to the exjperience of the 
well known American firm, the Lodge & Shipley Machine Com- 
pany, in making and using reamers, were given by their Mr. 
William Lodge : 

The only reamer we use that is out of the ordinary is a taper 
reamer made with only three blades. These are cut as deep as the 
strength of the stock will permit and have very little clearance, 
which is obtained by grinding the blades convex — not flat or hol- 
low — as shown in Fig. 141. The reamer is used where a consider- 




mQ. 141. — TAPER REAMER WITH THREE BLADES. 

able amount of metal is to be removed. For instance, we would 
bore a hole of the right size for the smah end of the reamer and 
then move it up so that it would cut a length anywhere from three 
to six inches, feeding very rapidly. We have bored thousands of 
holes with this style of reamer, getting the best results we ever 
obtained with the least trouble and in the quickest time. 

Many reamers are in use that are known as "home-made," 
that is, made by the parties themselves. We have found a great 
mistake in such reamers. It often occurs that the flutes are cut 
too shallow and the spacing is entirely too close; that they are 
evenly spaced instead of staggered, and very often have an even 
number of teeth, all of which is likely to cause chattering and 
breaking of taper reamers. An evenly spaced reamer will begin to 
chatter the moment the cutting edge refuses to cut, especially 



200 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



when cutting steel and when evenly spaced, one blade will jump 
into the space or chatter mark made by the blade in advance of it. 
Another serious fault with any reamer, either straight or taper, 
is too much clearance. This will invariably cause a reamer to 
chatter. 

As to reamers for brass, we never make them oversize, and 
we always make the blade of the reamer for brass the same as 
we would grind a tool for cutting brass, namely, instead of using 
a radial line on the center as in other cutting tools, we throw the 
cutting edge of the blade off from the center at an angle of at 
least 20 degrees out of the radial line, as shown in Fig. 142. Thus, 
in turning brass, if you had a tool that was ground straight and 
mounted it in the tool post exactly at the center of the work you 
would find that the tool wtould chatter. Take the same tool and 




FIG. 142. — re;amer for brass. 



grifid it oh the top to an angle as above described and toward the 
underside of the blade, and it would cut quite freely and without 
any chattering. At all times, however, it is necessary to keep the 
cutting edge of the reamer for brass extremely sharp, because 
the very moment the cutting edge is dull it will begin to bind and 
scream sufficiently loud to drive you out of the shop. Reamers 
for reaming brass require twice or three times the attention in 
keeping to a sharp edge that other reamers require. 

For hand reaming we never have to exceed 3-1000 in any 
material, and all our machine reaming is done by a reamer with 
very much coarser blades than the ordinary commercial reamer. 
They are made so that they may be ground on the points, are fed 
rapidly, and the tool used in advance of them leaves in no case less 
than 1-32 and often as much as 1-16. 

Reamers and Reaming. 
In order to ream uniform holes (as regards diameter) in a 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 20I 

screw machine, it is necessary to always have an equal amount of 
stock for the reamer to remove. This can be best accomplished 
by using two reamers, one for roughing, and one for finishing. 
The roughing reamer should be preceded by a single pointed 
boring tool (or its equivalent), to insure a true hole. On thin 
work a finishing reamer should be of "rose form," so as to be 
self-supporting and prevent enlargement of the hole by its weight. 

For steel, reamers are ground straight, while for cast-iron, 
brass and copper it often becomes necessary to grind same slight- 
ly back tapering to prevent roughing up. 

The teeth on reamers for steel and cast-iron should be on 
center, while for brass they should be slightly ahead of the cen- 
ter. 

On machine reaming, when possible to do so, the reamers are 
hung loose and allowed to follow the true or concentric hole made 
by a single-pointed boring tool. This can be done by having a 
"floating" reamer with a pin entered through the holder and the 
reamer at the back end, the hole in the reamer being larger than 
the pin so as to allow it to find its own center. 

Square reamers (scrapers) are often used for fine finishing, 
especially on brass. Expansion reamers possess many desir- 
able features ; but there are few, if any, that can be adjusted and 
used for sizing, without grinding the cutting edges each time 
they are expanded, as unless perfectly fitted in as regards tapers, 
etc., the separate teeth do not expand equally. 

As a matter of cost, however, this additional grinding amounts 
to but little in comparison with that of a new solid or shell 
reamer of large diameter, two and a fourth inches or more. 

Number of Tee'th Generally Milled in Reamers. 

3-16 to y^ inch diameter, 6 teeth. 
^ to 134 inches diameter, 8 teeth. 
1% to i^ inches diameter, 10 teeth, 
i^ to 2}i inches diameter, 12 teeth. 
2^ to 3 inches diameter, 14 teeth. 

3 to 4 inches diameter, 16 teeth. 

4 to 5 inches diameter, 18 teeth. 

A long hole can be reamed straight by pulling back slightly 
after the reamer has commenced to cut. 

On Babbitt, reamers of the usual form are used, with the ex- 
ception that the point is ground tapering about y^-'mch. long, to 



202 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEAUNG. 

a diameter equal to size generated by boring tool. This gives a 
smooth hole, free from lines, also prevents rings. Left-hand 
spiral flutes are recommended. 

On taper reamers for screw machine, use 2^ inches per foot 
and upward. They will cut much easier if made with left-hand 
spiral flutes or angle, but on account of difficulty in grinding this 
is not often done. 

For forming or curving reamers for projectile work, the above 
holds good. Reamers i^ to 2]/\ inches taper per foot should 
have flute straight for finishers, the roughers either of the deep 
form or with a left-hand spiral thread nicked around. The ream- 
ers to i^ inches taper per foot are fluted left-hand to prevent 
drawing in when cutting. 

Roughing, taper and forming reamers are sometimes made 
from steel with an undercut, and also with right-hand spiral, and 
they remove the stock very rapidly. 

Speeds for reaming should range from 20 to 30 per cent less 
than turning and drilling speeds. (See tables, pages 123 and 
124.) 

On large taper reamers, with slight taper, it has been found 
good practice to make each tooth a different left-hand spiral and 
also to "stagger" the teeth as regards spacing. 

Rose reamers are quite often ground tapering, that is, small 
at back, .003 to foot, and then are less liable to rough up the hole 
they are reaming, and give a straight hole very nearly correct in 
diameter. 

Grinding Tzvist Drills. 

Grinding twist drills accurately is generally admitted to be 
difficult. To know the number of revolutions a drill should run 
is of great importance in order to obtain the most economical re- 
sults. The illustration, Fig. 143, shows opposite sides of the 
Standard Twist Drill Grinding Gage, made of steel i-16-inch 
thick. The angle of the gage is ground to exactly 59 degrees. 
The scale on the gage is graduated so that the cutting edges of 
the drill can be measured and ground exactly the same length. 
The straight edge of the gage is a 2-inch scale graduated by 
eighths of an inch ; opposite each eighth mark is a number, which 
is the best speed to run a drill of corresponding size of diameter. 

In using the gage, hold it with the left hand and place the 
drill in the gage with the cutting edges of the drill facing you. 
The rest of the lip of the drill must be lower than the cutting 
edge, which will give the drill clearance and allow the edges to 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 



205, 



cut. Always keep Tzvist Drills sharp and run them at the proper 
speed. If you want to force a drill to do work quickly, run at 
the right speed, but increase the feed. 

Circular Forming Tools. 

Circular forming tools for machine steel and cast-iron should 
have a generous amount of clearance. 

Care must be taken on particular forms, when forming cutters 
are not on center, that they are formed with this point taken 
into consideration. 

Forming cutters with steps having great difference of diam- 




160 


— 










— 


660 


23 J - 


— 












320 


150 


— 










— 


220 


Ha- 


— 












160 


gs 


— 


Opposite 


sides of 


standard 


— 


130 


73- 


— 


twist 


drill grinding gauge 





105 


63 


— 










- 


90 


38- 


— 










— ;: 


80 


32 


— 










— 


70 


40- 


— 












63 


12 


— 










— 


58 


39 - 


— 












31 


36 


— 










— 


49 


33- 


— 












45 


31 


— 










— 


4] 



29- 

o 



o 



FIG. 143. 

eter, and also with sharp corners, if made in sections, harden 
more easily and safely. 

Circular threading tools for inside threading must be mucli 
smaller than the work ; about one-third is the proper practice. 

Care should be exercised to use a correct angle of chaser. 

Plain Forming Tools. 
Plain forming tools should have a clearance of from 6^^ to lo 
degrees. 



204 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Rake: Machinery steel 8 to 13 degrees. 

Rake : Tool steel, medium, 6 to 9 degrees. 

Rake : Brass, none. 

The clearance on tools for brass is quite often stoned off its 
cutting edge to prevent "biting in" (due to ease of cutting) and 
then chattering, due to great thickness of chip and consequent 
difficulty in severing. The "stoning off" also tends to act as a 
support for the cutter. 

Facing. 

For steel and cast-iron, cutters with from 6 to 12 degrees rake 
cut very freely. The clearance should be from 3;^2 to 10 degrees ; 
when there is any tendency to chatter, the cutting edge should be 
stoned on clearance face sufficiently to prevent "biting in." On 
very broad work it often becomes necessary to make cutters with- 
out any rake or angle, but allow scraping, to prevent chatter. 

In practice it is found advantageous to place cutter ahead of 
center, exposing a larger cutting edge to work, giving thinner 
chip. 

In multiple or inserted cutter heads, it is well to unevenly 
space the cutters ; as a precaution against chattering, have the cut- 
ters "staggered." 

Use machines with large bearings, and with chucks close to 
same, for good results. 

Lubricant in Milling Steel or Wrought Iron. 

In milling steel or wrought iron, keep cutter thoroughly wet 
with lubricant. Sal soda dissolved in water is often used. A 
better lubricant for milling cutter, drill, etc., is : Lard oil, 5^ 
gallon ; whale oil soap, 2 pounds ; sal soda, 3 pounds ; water, 10 
gallons. Have the soap so it will dissolve readily. Boil the whole 
until dissolved. 

Counterhoring. 

For cast-iron and steel, counterbores are generally made with 
ten to sixteen degrees angle, i. e., spiral; for brass they are cut 
straight. Clearance is from five to ten degrees. On brass, 
"stone" the clearance edge to prevent chattering. 

Counterbores internally lubricated are recommended for steel 
for use to depth of one-half of the diameter or more. 

Angle clearance on all tools must be more than spiral gen- 
erated by feed, at smallest diameter of cutting point plus suffi- 
cient to be really forced in work (about 3 degrees). 



miscellanp:ous methods, tables, etc. 



205 



Soldering. 
There are many kinds of solders, from that which will melt 
in boiling water to hard brass solder that melts only at white 
heat. As a rule, the harder the solder the stronger the joint. Of 
the white solders silver is the hardest. For all solders that require 
a red heat, borax is used as a flux, and the solder will run anywhere 
the borax goes. Rubbing the joint with a pointed piece of iron will 
help the solder to run into the joint. The parts to be soldered 
should, of course, be cleaned. The solder will not stick to the 
work until the surface of the work is heated to the melting point 
of the solder. Don't try to solder with a cold iron, and, with 




PIG. 144. — COUNTERBORE. 




FIG. 145. — COUNTERSINK. 

large pieces, heat them to the melting point of the solder or use 
a very hot iron. Always use a solder with a much lower melting 
point than that of the metal to be soldered. 

Useful Information. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four 
times. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62^ pounds, and contains 1,728 
cubic inches, or 7^ gallons. 

A gallon of fresh water weighs 81-3 pounds, and contains 231 
cubic inches. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons : Multiply the 
area in inches by the height of stroke in inches. Divide this prod- 
uct by 231 (being the cubical contents of a gallon in inches) ; 
the quotient is the capacity in gallons. 



:206 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

To find the area of a circle or cylinder : Square the diameter 
in inches and multiply the product by .7854. 

Example : What is the area of a 12-inch circle? 

i2Xi2^i44+.78S4=i 13.0976 square inches. 

Rust joint cement (quick setting) : i part sal-ammoniac in 
powder (by weight), 2 flour of sulphur, 80 iron borings, made to 
-a paste with water. 

Rust joint (slow setting) : 2 parts sal-ammoniac, i flour of 
sulphur, 200 iron borings. 

The latter is best if joint is not required for immediate use. 

Metal to expand in cooling : 9 parts lead, 2 antimony, i bis- 
muth. 

Glue to resist moisture : i pound of glue in 2 quarts of 
skimmed milk. 

To color or coat zinc : Dissolve i ounce blue vitriol in 4 ounces 
-water, add teaspoonful nitric acid. Apply with cloth. 

Lacquer for Brass Articles. 

A good lacquer for brass articles is made from best orange 
-shellac dissolved in a good alcohol (i to 2 ounces gum to the 
^int) and filtered through filter paper. This is excellent for brass, 
and for silver the bleached shellac may be substituted. Some pre- 
fer to use the lacquer thin and the work heated to about 115 
degrees Fahr., a temperature that will vaporize the alcohol and 
leave a firmly adhering coat of gum if the work has been prop- 
•erly cleansed. 

Removing Rust from Polished Steel and Iron. 

In the Journal of the United States Artillery directions were 
;given for caring for ordnance, and the treatment recommended 
for rust on polished steel is as follows : Cyanide of potash is 
most excellent for removing rust, and should be made much use 
-of. Instruments of polished steel may be cleaned as follows : 
First soak, if possible, in a solution of cyanide of potassium in 
the proportion of one ounce of cyanide to four ounces of water. 
Allow this to act till all loose rust and scale is removed and then 
■polish with cyanide soap. 

The cyanide soap referred to is made as follows : Potassium 
■cyanide, precipitated chalk, white Castile soap. Make a saturated 
solution of the cyanide and add chalk sufficient to make a creamy 
paste. Add the soap cut in fine shavings and thoroughly in- 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 20/ 

corporate in a mortar. When the mixture is stiff cease to add 
soap. It may be well to state that potassium cyanide is a violent 
poison. ) 

For removing rust from iron the following is given : Iron may 
be quickly and easily cleaned by dipping in or washing with nitric 
acid, one part ; muriatic acid, one part ; water, twelve parts. 
After using wash with clean water. 

Miscellaneous Information. 

Area of a circle = diameter X -.7854. 

Circumference of a circle = diameter X 3-i4i6. 

Given the area of a circle to find the diameter, divide the area 
by .7854 and extract the square root. 

Area of a hexagon = length of one side X 2.598. 

Cubic contents in inches of a bar of iron = area of one end in 
inches by its length, in inches. 

Weight of cast iron, per cubic inch, .26 pound ; of wrought 
iron, .278; of steel, .283; of copper and bronze, .32; of brass, .3. 

A wrought-iron bar one square inch in section and one yard 
long weighs 10 pounds. Steel is about two per cent heavier than 
wrought iron. Cast iron is about six per cent lighter than wrought 
iron. 

To find the surface speed in feet per minute of an emery 
wheel or milling cutter : Divide the number of revolutions of the 
wheel per minute by 12, and multiply the result by 3.1416 times 
the diameter of the emery wheel in inches. 

To find the number of revolutions a wheel must run for a 
given surface speed, multiply the surface speed in feet per min- 
ute by 12 and divide the result by 3.1416 times the diameter in 
inches. 

Given, the diameter of a hexagon nut across the fiats, to 
find the diameter across corners, multiply the diameter across 
flats by 1. 156. 



208 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF MILLIMETERS AND 
FRACTIONS OF MILLIMETERS. 



T^o mm. = .0003937 inch. 



MM 


Indies 


MM 


Inches 


MM 


Inches 


5V 


.00079 


ft 


.02047 


2 


07874 


5% 


.00157 


u .. 


.02126 


3 


I1811 


T% 


.00236 


u 


.02205 


4 


15748 


5% 


.00315 


u 


.02283 


5 


19685 


■io 


.00394 


u 


.02362 


6 


23622 


Z% 


.00472 


3 1 


.02441 


7 


27559 


.V 


.00551 


If 


.02520 


8 


31496 


5% 


.00630 


u 


.02598 


'9 


35433 


5% 


.00709 


u 


.02677 


lO 


39370 


i§ 


.00787 


u 


.02756 . 


II 


43307 


ii 


.00S66 


u 


.02835 


12 


47244 


12 
•55 


.00945 


3 7 

So 


.02913 


13 


51181 


13 
So 


.01024 


u 


.02992 


14 


55"8 


u 


,01102 


u 


.03071 


15 


5905s 


H 


.01181 


n 


•03150 


16 


62992 


U 


.01260 


u 


•03228 


17 


66929 


H 


•01339 


u 


•03307 


18 


70866 


18' 

■5(J 


.01417 


u 


.03386 


19 


74803 


M 


.01496 


H 


•03465 


20 } 


78740 


le 


•01 575 


n 


•03543 


21 


82677 


B 


.01654 


u 


.03622 


22 


86614 


U 


.01732 


u 


.03701 i 


23 


9055' 


U 


.01811 


n 


.03780 


24 


94488 


U 


.01890 


n 


.03858 


,^5 


98425 


U 


.01969 


I 


•03937 ': 


26 j I 


02362 




10 mm. 


= 1 centimeter ^0.39 


^y inches. 






10 cm. 


= I decimeter = 3.92 


7 inches. 






10 dm. 


= I meter =39-3 


7 inches. 






25.4 mm 


= I En 


^lish inch. 







MISCELLANEOUS METHODS^ TABLES^ ETC. 



209 



DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF PARTS OF AN INCH. 



^ 


,01563 


H 


.32813 






If 


.70313 


^v 


.03125 


ii 


.34375 




It 




.71875 


^ 


.04688 


H 


.35938' 






II 


.7343B 


1/ 
/16 


.0625 


% 


.375 


/4 






.75 


#4 


.07813 


1^ 


.39063 






F4 


.76563 


3% 


.09375 


hi 


.40625 




H 




.78125 


/4- 


.10938 


H 


.42188 






ti 


.79688 


1/ 


.125 


/16 


,4375 


I3X 






.8125 


■h 


.14063 


2a 

B4 


.45313 






If 


.82813- 


^ 


.15625 


^f 


.46875 




§i 




.84375 


ii 


.17188 


li 


.48438 






M 


.85938 


3/ 
yi6 


.1875 


/2 


.5 


/z 






.875 


il 


.20313 


il 


.51563 






II 


.89063 


1^ 


.21-875 


r^ 


.53125 




It 




.90625 


M 


.23438 


35. 

64 


.54688 






If 


.92188 


X 


.25 


/I6 


.5625 


15/ 
/I6 






.9375 


il 


.26o63 


i^4 


.57813 






fi 


.95313 


h 


.28125 


M 


.59375 




li 




.96875 


.. ^ 


.29688 


30 
64 


..60938 






fl 


.98438 


Vi^ 


.3125 


5^6 


.625 

.64063 
.65625 
.67188 

..6875 


1 






1.00000 



2IO 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



CONSTANTS FOR FINDING DIAMETER AT BOTTOM OF THREAD. 



Threads 
per Inch. 


u. s. 

Standard 
Constant. 


V Thread 
Constant. 


Threads 
per Inch. 


u. s. 

Standard 
Constant. 


V Thread 
Constant. 


64 


.02029 


.02706 


16 


.08118 


.10825 


60 


.02165 


.02887 


14 


.09278 


. 12357 


56 


.02319 


.03093 


13 


.09992 


. 13323 


50 


^02598 


.03464 


12 


. 10825 


.14433 


48 


.02706 


.03608 


11 


.11809 


. 15745 


44 


.02952 


.03936 


10 


. 12990 


. 17320 


40 


.03247 


.04330 


■9 


.14433 


.19244 


36 


.03608 


.04811 


8 


. 16237 


.21650 


32 


.04059 


05412 


7 


. 18555 


.24742 


30 


.04330 


.05773 


6 


.21650 


.28866 


28 


.04639 


.06185 


b'A 


.33618 


.31490 


26 


.04996 


06661 


5 


.25980 


.34650 


24 


.05412 


07216 


4K 


.28866 


.38488 


22 


.05904 


.07872 


4 


.32475 


.43300 


20 


06495 


.08660 


S'A 


.37114 


.49485 


18 


07216 


09622" 


3 


43333 


.57733 



C = Constant for number of threads per inch. 

D = Outside diameter. 

D^= Diameter at bottom of thread. 
D^ = D — C. 

Example. — Given outside diameter of U. S. S. screw 
thread, 2 inches, 4V2 threads per inch; find diameter at 
bottom of thread. D=^2 inches; for 4% threads U. S. 
S. constant, C = .2886 ; then diameter at bottom of thread 
D' = 2 — .2886^1.7114 inches. 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 



211 



METRIC AND ENGLISH OR AMERICAN (u. S.) EQUIVALENT 
MEASURES. 



Measures of Length. 



I foot = 
I inch 



.3048 meter. 
. ( 2.54 centimeters. 
' / 25.4 millimeters. 



( ^.37 inches. 
I meter = i 3.28083 feet. 

( 1.0936 yds. 
1 centimeter =i .3937 inch. 

1 millimeter = j?3937 inch, or 
( sV inch nearly. 
1 kilometer = 0.62137 mile. 

Measures of Surface. 

I ^^..o..«. ^^t^, i 10.764-square feet. Jl square yard = .836 square 
1 square meter = ^ , jgg g^^^^^ ^^^ j ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ _ 0929 square 

1 square centimeter = 15.5 sa. in. \\c„„„^^;„ 
I square millimeter = .00155 sq. in. 1 1 square in 



meter, 
meter. 
6.452 sq. centimeters. 
645.2 sq. millimeters. 



Measures of Volume and Capacity 

35 314 cubic feet. 



1 liter : 



1 cubic yard = .7643 cubic meter. 

f .02832cubicmeter. 
1 cubic ft. = < 28.317 cubic decimeters 

1 28.317 liters. 

1 cubic inch = 16 387cubiccentimeters. 
1 gallon (British) = 4 543 liters. 
1 gallon (U. S.) 5= 3.785 liters. 



1 cubic meter = < 1.308 cubic yards. 
1 264.2 gallons (231 
cubic inch). 

1 cubic decimeter = S61.0|^-^i^fe- 

1 cubic centimeter = .061 cubic inch. 
1 cubic decimeter. 
61.023 cubic inches. 
0353 cubic foot. 
1.0567 quarts (U. S.) 

2642 gallons (D. S.) . 
2.202 lbs, of water at 62°F. 

Measures of Weight. 

1 gram = 15.432 grains. 11 grain = .0648 gram. 

1 kilogram = 2.2046 pounds. 1 ounce avoirdupois = 28.35 g^ams. 

1 .9842 ton of 2240 lbs. ^ pound = .4536 kilograms. 
1 metric ton = j ^9.^ cwts. |, t,„,f 22401bs. = { ^feSr^m^^- 

MisoeUaneous. 

1 kilogram per meter = .6720 pouodif per foot. 

1 gram per square millimeter = 1.422 pounds per square inch. 

1 kilogram per square meter = 0.2084 " " foot. 

1 kilogram per cubic meter = .0624 " cubic " 

1 degree centigrade = 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit. 

1 pound per foot = 1.488 kilograms per meter. 

1 pound per square foot == 4.882 kilograms per square meter. 

I pound per cubic foot = 16,02 kilograms per cubic meter. 

1 degtee Fahrenheit = .5556 degrees centigrade. 

I Calorie (French Thermal Unit) = 3.968 B. T. U. (British Thermal Unit). 

1 wnrsp Power — i >^'<W0 foot pounds per miuutc. 
1 Horse Power - ^ ^^g ^^^1^.^ "■ 

1 watt (Unit of Electrical Power) = {,^^ f^°rpounds"per minute, 
f 1000 Watts. 
1 Kilowatt =< 1.34 Horse Power 

(44240 foot pounds per minute. 



212 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF ROUND, SQUARE AND HEXAGON 
STEEL. 

Weight of one cubic inch = .2836 lbs. 
Weight of one cubic foot = 490 lbs. 



h 


Area = 


= Diam.2 x 


.7854. 1 


Area = Side2 x 1. 


Area = Diam.2x.86a 


Round. 1 


Square. 


Hexagon. 


Is 


Weight 
Per 
Inch. 


Area 
Square 
Inches. 


Circum- 
ference 
Inches. 


Weight 
Per 
Inch. 


Area 
Square 
Inches. 


Weight 

Per 

Inch. 


Area 
Square 
Inches. 


il 


.0002 
.0009 
.0020 
.0035 


.0008 
.0031 
.0069 
.0123 


.0981 
.1963 
.2995 
.3927 


.0003 
.0011 
.0025 
.0044 


.0010 
.0039 
.0088 
.0156 


.0002 
.0010 
.0022 
.0038 


.0008 
.«034 
.0076 
.0135 


1 


.0054 
.0078 
.0107 
.0139 


.0192 
.0276 
.0376 
.0491 


.4908 
.5890 
.6872 
.7854 


.0069 
.0101 
.0136 
X177 


.0244 
.0352 
.0479 
.0625 


.0060 
.0086 
.0118 
.0154 


.0211 
.0304 
.0414 
.0510 


i 

II 


,0176 
.0218 
.0263 
.0313 


.0621 
.0767 
.0928 
.1104 


.8835 

.9817 

1.0799 

1.1781 


.0224 
.0277 
.0335 
.0405 


.0791 
.0977 
.1182 
.1406 


.0194 
.0240 
.0290 
.0345 


.0688 
.0846 
.1023 
.1218 


11 


.0368 
.0126 

.0557 


.1396 
.1503 
.1726 
.1963 


1.2762 
1.3744 
1.4726 
1.5708 


.0466 
.0543 
.0623 
.0709 


.1651 
.1914 
.2197 
.2500 


.0405 
.0470 
.0540 
.0614 


.1428 
.1658 
.1903 
.2161 


ys 


.0629 
.0705 
.OT85 
.0870 


.2217 

.2485 
.2769 
.3068 


1.6689 
1.7671 
1.8653 
1.9635 


.0800 
.0897 
.1036 
.1108 


.2822 
.3164 
.3526 
.3906 


.0693 

Xfm 

.0866 
.0959 


.2444 
.2743 
.3053 
.3383 


i 


.0959 
.1053 
.1151 
.1253 


.8382 
.3712 
.4057 
.4418 


2.0616 
2.1598 
2.2580 
2.3562 


.1221 
.1340 
.1465 
.1622 


.4307 
.4727 
.5166 
.5625 


.1058 
.1161 
.1270 
.1382 


.3730 
.4093 
.4474 
.4871 


i 


.1359 
.1470 
.1586 
U705 


.4794 
;5185. 
.5591 
.6013 


2.4543 
2.5525 
2.6507 
2.7489 


.1732 
.1872 
.2019 
.2171 


.6103 

.6602 
.7119 
.7656 


.1499 
.1620 
a749 
.1880 


.5286 
.6712 
.6165 
.6631 


Y 


12090 
.2227 


.6450 
.6903 
.7371 
.7854 


2.8470 
2.9452 
3.0434 
3.1416 


.2329 
.2492 
.2661 
.2836 


.8213 

.8789 

.9384 

1.0000 


.2015 
.2159 
.2305 
.2456 


.7112 
.7612 
.8127 
.8643 


1^ 


.2515 
.2819 
.3141 
.3480 


.8866 

.9940 

1.1075 

1.2272 


3.3379 
3.5343 
3.7306 
3.9270 


.3201' 
.3589 
.4142 
.4431 


L128? 
1.2656 
1.4102 
1.5625 


.2773 
.3109 
.3464 
.3838 


.9776 
1.0973 
1.2212 
1.3531 


il 


.3837 
.4211 
.4603 
.5012 


1.3530 
1.4849 
1.6230 
1.7671 


4.1233 
4.3197 
4.5160 
4.7124 


.4885 
.5362 
.5860 
.6487 


1.7227 
1.8906 
2.0664 
2.2500 


.4231 
.4643 
.5076 
.5526 


1.4919 
1.6373 

1;SII 


i 


.5438 

.5882 

1 .6343 

.6821 


1.9175 
2.0739 
.2.2365 
2.4053 


4.9087 

5.1051 

6.3014 

. 6.4978 


.6930 
,7489 
,8076 
.8685 


2.4414 
2.6406 
2.8477 
3.0625 


.5996 
.6480 
.6994 
.7521 


2.il43 
2:2847 
2.4662 
2.6532 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 



213 



WEIGHTS AND AREAS OF RDUND^ SQUARE AND HEXAGON 
STEEL. 

Continued. 



V H 

Is 



Round. 



Square. 



Hexagon. 



Weight 

Per 

Inch. 



Ill 
'J' 



¥ 

3fS 
S% 

SM 

3?% 

4 

4'/8 

45i 
4Ji 
4J^ 

454 

5^ 
b% 





^J5 



.7317 
.7831 
.8361 
.8910 

.9475 
1.0058 
1.0658 
1.1276 

1.1911 
1.2564 
1.3234 
1.3921 

1.5348 
1.6845 
1.8411 
2.004tt 

2.1752 
2.3527 
2.5371 
2.7286 

2.9269 
3.i323 
3.3446 
3.5638 

3.7900 

4.0232 
4.2634 
4.5105 

4.7645 
5.0265 
5.2935 
5.5685 

5.8504 
6.1392 
6.4351 
6.7379 

7.0476 
7.3643 
7.6880 
8.0186 

8.7007 

9.4107 

10.1485 

J0.9I42 

i2J529l 



Area 
Square 
Ihcffies. 



2.5802 
2.7612 
2.9483 
3.1416 

3.3410 
3.5466 
3.7583 
3.9761 

4.2000 
4.4301 
4.6664 
4.9087 

5.4119 
5.9396 
6.4918 
7.0686 

7.6699 
8 2958 
8.9462 
9.6211 

10.3206 
11.0447 
11.7932 
12.5664 

13.3640 
14.1863 
15.0332 
15.9043 

16.8002 
17.7205 
18.6655 
19.6350 

20.6290 
21.6475 
22.6905 
23.7583 

24.8505 
25.9672 
27.1085 
28.2743 

30.6796 
33.1831 
88.7847 
88:4845 

44.1786 
50.2655 



Circum- 
ference 
Inches. 



Weight 

Per 

Inch. 



5.6941 
5.8905 
6.0868 
6.2832 

6.4795 
6.6769 
6.8722 
7.0686 

7.264» 
7.4613 
7.6575 
7.8540 

8.2467 
8.6394 
9.0321 
9.4248 

9.8175 
10.2102 
10.6029 
10.9966 

11.3883 
11.7810 
12.1737 
12.5664 

12.9591 
13.3518 
13.7445 
14.1372 

14.5299 
14.9226 
15.3153 
15.7080 

16.1007 
16.4934 
16.8861 
17.2788 

17.6715 
18.0642 
18.4569 
18.8496 

19.6350 
20.4204 
21.2058 
21.9912 

23.5620 
25.1328 



.9316 

.9970 

1.0646 

1.1342 

1.2064 
1.2806 
1.3570 
1.4357 

1.5165 
1.6669 
1.6849 
1.7724 

1.9541 
2.1446 
2.3441 
2.5549 

2.7719 
2.9954 
3.2303 
3.4740 

3.7265 

3.9880 
4.2582 
4.5374 

4.8254 
5.1223 
5.4280 
5.7426 

6.0662 
6j6276 
6.7397 
7.0897 

7.4496 
7.8164 
8.1930 
8.5786 

8.9729 
9.3762 
9.7883 
10.2192 

11.0877 
11.9817 
12.9211 
13.8960 

15.9520 
18.1497 



Area 
Square 
Inches. 



Weight 

Per 

Inch. 



3.2852 
3.5166 
3.7539 
4.0000 

4.2539 
4.5166 
4.7852 
5.0625 

5.34T7 
5.6406 
5,9414 
6.2600 

6.8906 
7.6625 
8.2656 
9.0000 

9.7656 
10.5625 
11.3906 
12.2500 

13.1407 
14.0625 
15.0166 
16.0000 

17.0166 
18.0625 
19.1406 
20.2600 

21.3906 
22.5625 
23.7656 
25.0000 

26.2656 
27.6624 
28.8906 
30.2600 

31.6406 
83.0625 
34.5166 
36XJ0OO 

39.0625 
42.2600 
45.5625 
49.0000 

56.2500 
64.0000 



.8635 
.9220 
.9825 

1.0448 
1.1091 
1.1753 
1.2434 

1.3135 

1.3854 
1.4593 
1.5351 

1.6924 
1.8674 
2.0304 
2.2105 

'2.3986 
2.5918 
2.79T7 
3.0083 

3.2275 
3.4539 
8.6880 
3.9298 

4.1792 
4.4364 
4.7011 
4.9736 

5.2538 
5 5416 
5.8371 
6.1403 

6.4511 

6.7697 
7.0959 
7.4298 

7.T713 
8.1214 

8.4774 
8.8420 

9.5943 
10.3673 
11.1908 
12.0351 

13.8158 
15.7192 



Are4 
Square 
Inches. 

2.8460 
3.044S 
3.250{) 
3.4573 

3.6840 
3.9106 
4.1440 
4.3892 

4.6312 
4.8849 
5.1464 
5.4126 

5.9674 
6.6493 
7.1590 
7.7941 

8.457.'l 

9.1387 

9 8646 

10.6089 

11.3798 
12.1785 
13.0035 
13 8292 

14.7359 
15 6424 
16.5761 
17.5569 

18.6249 
19.5397 
20.5816 
21.6503 

22.7456 
23.8696 
25-0198 
26.1971 

27.4013 
28.6361 
29.8913 
31.1765 

33.8291 
36.5547 
39.4584 
42.4354 

48.7142 
55.3169 



Multiply above weights by .993 for wrought iron, .918 
for cast iron, 1.0331 for cast brass, 1.1209 for copper, and 
1. 1748 for phos. bronze. 



214 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



WEIGHT OF IRON AND STEEL SHEETS. 

Weights per Square Foot. — Kent. 





Thickness by 




Thickness by 


American 


Birmingham Gauge 




(Brown and Sharpe's) Gauge. 


No. of 


Thickness 


Iron. 


Steel. 


No. of 


Thickness 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Gauge. 


in Inches. 






Gauge. 


in Inches. 






0000 


.454 


18.16 


18.52 


0000 


.46 


18.40 


18.77 


000 


.425 


17.00 


17.34 


000 


.4096 


16.38 


16:71 


00 


.38 


15o20 


15.50 


00 


.3648 


14.59 


14.88 





.34 


13.60 


13.87 





.3249 


13.00 


13.26 


1 


.3 


12.00 


12.24 


1 


.2893 


11.57 


11.80 


2 


.284 


11.36 


11.59 


2 


.2576 


10.30 


10.51 


3 


.259 


10.36 


10.57 


3 


.2294 


9.18 


9.36 


4 


.238 


9.52 


9.71 


4 


.2043 


8.17 


8.34 


5 


.22 


8.80 


8.98 


5 


.1819 


7.28 


7.42 


6 


.203 


8.12 


8.28 


6 


.1620 


6.48 


6.61 


7 


.18 . 


7.20 


7.84 


7 


.1443 


5.77 


5.89 


8 


.165 


6.60 


6.73 


8 


.1285 


5.14 


5.24 


9 


.148 


5.92 


6.04 


9 


.1144 


4.58 


4.67 


10 


.134 


5.36 


5.47 


10 


.1019 


4.08 


4.16 


11 


.12 


4.80 


4.90 


11 


.0907 


3.63 


3.70 


12 


.109 


4.36 


4.45 


12 


.0808 


3,23 


3.30 


13 


.095 


3.80 


3.88 


13 


.0720 


2.88 


2.94 


14 


.083 


3.32 


3.39 


14 


.0641 


2.56 


2.62 


15 


.072 


2.88 


2.94 


15 


.0571 


2.28 


2.33 


16 


.065 


2.60 


2.65 


16 


.0508 


2.03 


2.<]i7 


17 


.058 


2.32 


2.37 


17 


.0453 


1.81 


1.85 


18 


.049 


1.96 


2.00 


18 


.0403 


1.61 


1.64 


19 


.042 


1.68 


1.71 


19 


.0359 


1.44 


1.46 


20 


.035 


1.40 


1.43 


20 


.0320 


1.28 


1.31 


21 


.032 


1.28 


1.31 


21 


.0285 


1.14 


1.16 


22 


.028 


1.12 


1.14 


22 


.0253 


1.01 


1.03 


23 


.025 


1.00 


1.02 


23 


.0226 


.904 


.922 


24 


.022 


.88 


.898 


24 


.0201 


.804 


.820 


25 


.02 


.80 


.816 


25 


.0179 


.716 


.730 


26 


.018 


.72 


-734 


26 


.0159 


.636 


.649 


27 


.016 


.64 


.653 


27 


.0142 


.568 


.579 


28 


.014 


. .56 


.571 


28 


.0126 


.504 


.514 


29 


.013 


.52 


.530 


29 


.0113 


.452 


.461 


30 


.012 


.48 


.490 


30 


.0100 


.400 


.408 


31 


.01 


.40 


.408 


31 


.0089 


.356 


.363 


32 


.009 


.36 


.367 


32 


.0080 


.320 


.326 


33 


.008 


.32 


.326 


33 


.0071 


.284 


.290 


34 


.007 


.28 


.286 


34 


.0063 


.252 


.257 


35 


.005 


.20 


.204 


35 


.0056 


.224 


.228 



Iron. Steel 

Specific gravity y.y 7-854 

Weight per cubic foot 480. 489.6 

Weight per cubic inch 2778 .2833 

As there are many gauges in use differing from each 
other, and even the thicknesses of a certain specified 
gauge, as the Birmingham, are not assum.ed the same by 
all manufacturers, orders for sheets and wires should al- 
ways state the weights per square foot, or the thickness 
in thousandths of an inch. 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 



215 



WEIGHTS OF SQUARE AND ROUND EARS OF WROUGHT IRON IN 
POUNDS PER LINEAL FOOT. — Kent. 

Iron weighing 480 lbs. per cubic foot. 
For steel add 2 per cent. 



, Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight of 


Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight of 


•or Diameter 


Square Bar 


Round Bar 


or Diameter 


Square Bar 


Round Bgr 


in 


One Fpot 


One Foot 


in 


One Foot 


One Fottt 


Inches 


long. 


Long. 


Inches. 


Long. 


Loo|. 









2 11-16 


24.08 


18.91' 


1 16 


.013 


.010 


3-4 


25.21 


19.80 


1-9 


.052 


.041 


13:16 


26.37 


20.71 


3 16' 


.117 


.092 


7-8 


27.55 


-21.64 


1-4 


.208 


.164 


15-16 


28.76 


2^.5» 


5-16 


.326 


.256 


8 


30.0a 


23.56 


3 8 


.469 


.368 


1.16 


31,26 


24.55 


7-16 


.638 


.501 


1^ 


32.55 


25.5? 


1-2 


.833 


.654 


3-16 


33.87 


26.60 


9-16 


1.055 


.828 


14 


35.21 


27.65 


5-8 


1.302 


1.023 


5-16 


36.58 


28.78 


1116 


1.576 


1.237 


3-8 


37.97 


29.82. 


3-4 


1.875 


1.473 


7-16 


89.39 


80.94 


13-16 


2.201 


1.728 


1.2 


40.83 


32.07 


7-8 


2.552 


2.004 


9-16 


42.30 


33.23 


15-16 


2.930 


2.301 


6-8 


43.80 


34 40 


1 


8.333 


2.618 


11-16 


45.33 


35.60 


1.16 


3.763 


2.955 


3-4 


46.88 


36.8a 


1-8 


4.219 


3.313 


13-16 


48.45 


38.05 


3-16 


4.701 


3.692 


7-8 


60.05 


39.31 


1-4 


5.208 


4.091 


15-16 


51.68 


40.59 


5-16 


5.742 


4.510 


4 


53.33 


41.89 


3-8 


6.302 


4.950 


1-16 


65.01 


43.21 


7-16 


6.888 


5.410 ' 


1-8 


56.72 


44.55 


12 


7.600 


6.890 


3-16 


68.45 


45.91 


9-16 


8.138 


6.392 


8-16 


60.21 


47.29 


5-8 


8.802 


6.913 


61.99 


48.69 


11-16 


9.492 


7.455 


3-8 


63.80 


50.11 


3.4 


10.21 


8.018 


7-16 


65.64 


51.55 


13-16 


10.95 


8.601 


1-2 


67.6P 


53.01 


7-8 


11.72 


9.204 


9-16 


69.39 


64.50 


15-16 


12.51 


9.828 


6-8 


71.30 


66.00 


2 


13.33 


10.47 


11-16 


73.24 


57.52 


116 


14.18 


11.14 


8-4 


75.21 


69.07 


1-8 


15.05 


11.82 


13-16 


77.20 


60.63 


3-16 


15.95 


12.53 


7.8 


79.22 


62.22 


14 


16.88 


13.25 


15.16 


81.26 


63.82 


6-16 


17.83 


14.00 


5 


83.33 


65.45 


3-g 


18.80 


14.77 


1.16 


85.43 


67.10 


7 16 


19.80 


15.55 


1.8 


87.55 


68.76 


12 


20.83 


16.36 


3-16 


89.70 


70.45 


i»-16 


21.89 


17.19 


14 


91.88 


72.16' 


5-8 


22.97 


18.04 


6-16 


94.08 


^3.89 



2l6 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



WEIGHTS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS OF WROUGHT IRON IN 
POUNDS PER LINEAL FOOT. — Kent. 

Iron weighing 480 lbs. per cubic foot. 
For steel add 2 per cent. 



Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight Of 


Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight of 


^r Diameter 
in Inches. 


Square Bar 


Round Bar 


or Diameter 
in Inches. 


Square Bar 


Round Bar 


One Foot 
liOng. 


One Foot 
Long. 


One Foot- 
Long. 


One Foot 
Long. 


6 3-8 


96.30 


75.64 


7 1-2 


187.5 


147.3 


7-16 


98..'>5 


77.40 


5-8 


193.8 


152.2 


1-2 


100.8 


79.19 


3-4 


200.2 


157.2 


9-16 


103.1 


81.00 


7-8 


206.7 


162.4 


5-8 


105.5 


82.83 


8 


213.3 


167.6 


11-16 


107.8 


84.69 


1-4 


226.9 


178.2 


3-4 


110.2 


86.56 


1-2 


240.8 


189.2 


13-16 


112:6 


88.45 


3-4 


- 255.2 


200.4 


7-8 


115.1 


90.36 


9 


270.0 


212.1 


. 15-16 


117.5 


92.29 


1-4 


585.2 


224.0 


6 


120.0 


94.25 


1-2 


300.8 


236.3 


1-8 


125.1 


98.22' 


3-4 


316.9 


248.9 


!4 


180.2 


102.3 


10 


333.3 


261.8 


3-8 


135.5 


106.4 


1-4 


350.2 


275.1 


1-2 


140.8 


110.6 


1-2 


367.5 


288.6 


5-8 


146.3 


114.9 


3-4 


385.2 


302.5 


3-4 


151.9 


119.3 


11 


403.3 


316.8 


7-8 


157.6 


123,7 


1-4 


421.9 


331.3 


7 


163.3 


i2&S 


1-3 


440.8 


346.3 


1-8 


169.2 


132.9 


34 


460.2 


361.4 


1-4 


175.2 


137.6 


12 


480. 


377. 


3-8 


181.3 


142.4 









To compute the Weight of Sheet Steel : 
Divide the thickness, expressed in thousandths, by 25; 
the result is the weight, in pounds, per square foot. 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 21/ 



UNITED STATES WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

Measures of Length. 

12 inches i foot. 

3 feet I yard. 

5J^ yards or i6^ feet i rod. 

40 rods or 220 yards i furlong. 

8 furlongs, or 1760 yds., or 5,280 ft. i mile. 

Measures of Surface. 

144 square inches i square foot. 

9 square feet i square yard. 

3034 sq. yds., or 272^ sq. ft..i square rod. 

160 sq. rods, or 4840 sq. yards i acre. 

640 acres i square mile. 

Measures of Volume. 

1728 cubic inches i cubic foot. 

27 cubic feet i cubic yard. 

128 cubic feet i cord wood. 

Measures of Weight. 

Commercial. 

43754 grains (Troy) i ounce Avoirdupois. 

16 ounces or 7000 grains .... i pound (lb.) Avoirdupois. 

100 pounds I hundredweight (cwt.) 

20 hundredweight or 2000 lbs i net ton. 
2240 pounds I gross ton. 



2l8 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



TAP DRILLS FOR MACHINE SCREW TAPS. 

These drills will give a thread full enough for all prac- 
tical purposes, but not a full thread. 



Sizes of 


No. of 


Sizes ot 


Sizes of 


No. oP 


Sizes of 


Taps 


Threads ' 


Drills 


Taps 


Threads 


Drills 


2 


48 


48 


12 


24 


19 


2 


56 


46 


13 


20 


•7 


i 


64 


45 


13 


24 


15 


3 


40 


48 


14 


20 


14 


3 


48 


47 


14 


22 


13 


3 


56 


45 


14 


24 


11 


4 


32 


45 


'5 


18 


12 


4 


36 


43 


15 


20 


10 


4 1 


40 


42 


'5 


24 


7 


5 1 


30 


41 


16 


16 


10 


5 


32 


' 40 


16 


18 


7 


5 


36 


38 


16 


20 


5 




40 


36 


16 


24 


I 


6 


30 


39 


17 


16 


7 


6 


32 


37 


•7 


i8 


4 


6 


36 


35 


17 


20 


2 


6 


40 


33 


.18 


16 


2 


7 


28 


32 


18 


18 


I 


7 
7 


30 
32 


31 

30 


18 

J9 


20 
16 


B 
C 


8 


24 


31 


19 


18 


D 


8 


30 


30 


19 


20 


E 


8 


32 


: 29 


1 20 


16 


E 


9 


24 


29 


1 20 


18 


E 


9 
9 


28 


1 27 


20 


20 


F 


30 


26 


22 


16 
18 


H 
I 


9 


32 


24 


22 


10 


24 


26 


24 


14 


K 


10 


28 


24 


24 


16 


L 


10 


30 


23 


24 


18 


M 


10 


32 
24 


21 


26 


14 





11 


20 


26 


16 


P 


1 1 


28 


J9 


28 


14 


R 


II 


30 


18 


28 


16 


S 
T 


11 


20 


21 


30 


'14 


22 


19 


30 


16 


. ^ 



SIZE OF DRILLS FOR STANDARD PIPE TAPS. 



Nom'l 


Threads 


Diam. 


Nom'l 


Threads 


Diam 


Nom'l 


Threads 


Diam. 


Diam. 


per inch 


of Drill 


Diam. 


per iach 


of Drill 


Diam. 
3 


per inch 

8 


of Urill 


H 


27 


U 


1 


n^ 


lA 


3M 

m 


a 


18 


U 


m 


im 


U§ 


3>^ 


8 


18 


M 


l\4 


im 


115 


4 


8 


m 




14 






iij^ 


3th 


4)^ 


8 


4M 


H 


14 


H 


3^ 


8 


'iVa 


5 


8 


5A 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 



219 



DIFFERENT STANDARDS FOR WIRE GAGE IN USE IN THE UNITED 
STATES. 

, Dimensions of Sizes in Decimal Parts of an Inch 



, bo 


p^ 




«5H 


0) 


v 


a to 


tt-i to 

io 


. 3 
is 


IPs. 




Mb 

OS S *- 


to 




GQ U 


ll 

is 


^^ 





(5- ^ 


^°3 

?5^ 


"^^ 


CO 


p'*" 


^^ 


000000 






.464 




.46875 


000000 


00000 


.... 


.... 





.432 




A3l5 


00000 


0000 


.46 


.454 


.3938 


.400 


.... 


.40625 


0000 


000 


.40964 


.425 


.3625 


.372 




.375 


000 


00 


.3648 


.38 


.3310 


.343 




.34375 


m 





.32486 


.34 


.3065 


.324 


.... 


.3125 


a 


1 


.2893 


.3 


.2830 


.300 


.227 


.28125 


i 


2 


.25763 


.284 


.2625 


.276 


.219 


.265625 


2 


3 


.22942 


.259 


.2437 


.252 


.212 


.25 


3 


4 


.20431 


.288 


.2253 


.232 


.207 


.234375 


4 


6 


.18194 


.82 


.2070 


.212 


.204 


.21875 


5 


6 


16202 


.203 


.1920 


.192 


.201 


.2031^ 


6 


7 


.14428 


.18 


.1770 


.176 


.199 


.1875 ■ 


7 


8 


12849 


.165 


.1620 


.160 


.197 


.171875 


8 


9 


.11443 


.148 


.1483 


.144 


.194 


.15625 


9 


10 


.10189 


.134 


.1350 


.128 


.191 


.140625 


10 


11 


090742 


.12 


.1205 


.116 


.188 


.125 


11 


12 


'08O8O8 


.109 


.1055 


104 


.185 


.109375 


12 


13 


071961 


.093 


.0915 


.092 


;182 


.09375 


13 


14 


.064084 


.083 


.0800 


.080 


.180 


.078125 


14 


15 


.057068 


,072 


.0720 


.072 


.178 


.0708125 


15 


16 


05082 


.065 


.0625 


.064 


.175 


.0625 


16 


17 


.045257 


.058 


.0540 


.056 


.172 


.05625 


17 


18 


.040^3 


.049 


.0475 


.048 


.168 


.05 


18 


19 


.03589 


.042 


.0410 


.OiO 


.164 


.04375 


19 


20 


031961 


.035 


•0348 


.036 


.161 


.0375 


20 


21 


.028462 


,032 


.03175 


.032 


.157 


.034375 


21 


22 


.025347 


.028 


.0286 


.028 


.155 


.03125 


22 


23 


022571 


.025 


.0258 


.024 


.153 


028125 


23 


24 


0201 


.022 


.0230 


.022 


.151 


.025 


24 


25 


0179 


.02 


.0204 


.020 


.148 


.021875 


25 


26 


.01594 


.018 


.0181 


.018 


.146 


.01875 


26 


27 


.014195 


.016 


.0173 


.0164 


.143 


,0171876 


27 


28 


.012641 


.014 


.0162 


.0149 


.139 


.015625 


28 


29 


.011257 


.013 


.0160 


.0136 


.134 


.0140625 


29 


30 


.010025 


.012 


.0140 


.0124 


.127 


.0125 


30 


31 


.008928 


.01 


.0132 


.0116 


.120 


.0109375 


31 


32 


00795 


.009 


.0128 


.0108 


.115 


.01015625 


32 


33 


'00708 


.008 


.0118 


.0100 


.112 


,009375 


33 


34 


.006304 


.007 


.0104 


.0092 


.110 


.00859375 


34 


35 


005614 


.005 


.0095 


.0084 


.108 


.0078125 


35 


36 


;005 


.004 


.0090 


.0076 


.106 


.00703125 


36 


37 


.004453 




.... 


.0068 


.103 


.006640625 


37 


38 


.003965 






.0060 


.101 


.00625 


38 


89 


.003531 





.... 


.0052 


.099 




39 


40 


.003144 







.0'>48 


.097 




40 



220 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



U. S. STANDARD SCREW THREADS. 



Diameter 
of Screw. 


Threads to 
Inch. 


IJiameter at Root 
of Thread. 


Width of 
Flat. 


% 


20 


.185 


.0063 


A 


18 


.2403 


.0069 


Vz 


16 


.2936 


.0078 


^ 


14 


.3447 


.0089 


Vz 


13 


.4001 


.0096 


tV 


12 


.4542 


.0104 


^ 


11 


.5069 


.0114 


K 


10 


.6201 


.0125 


^ 


9 


.7307 


.013^ 




8 


.8376 


.0156 


1/8 


7 


.9394 


.0179 


1^ 


7 


1.0644 


.0179 


13/8 


6 


1 . 1585 


.0208 


1/ 


6 


1.2835 


.0208 


\% 


hVz 


1.3888 


.0227 


m 


5 


1.4902 


.0250 


1/8 


5 


1.6152 


.0250 


2 


4>^ 


1.7113 


.0278 


23^ 


4/2 


1.9613 


.0278 


2/2 


4 


2.1752 


0313 


234: 


4 


2.4252 


.0313 


3 


3>^ 


2.6288 


.^357 


3^ 


3J4 


2.8788 


.0357 


3>^ 


3X 


3a003 


.0385 


su 


3 


3.3170 


.0417 


4 


3 


.3.5670 


.0417 


4^ 


2% 


3.7982 


.0435 


4>^ 


2^ 


4.0276 


.0455 


434: 


2>^ 


4,2551 


.0476 


5 


2>^ 


4.4804 


.0500 


5X 


2^ 


4.7304 


.0500 


hVz 


23/8 


4.9530 


.0526 


5% 


23/8 


5.2030 


.0526. 


6 


2^ 


5.4226 


.0556 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 



221 




SHARP " V " THREAD. 

Formula : 

p = pitch = 



1 



No. threads per inch 
d = depth r=p X.8660. 

I^iameter H ^^ % t\ M x\ % H % H 

No. Threads per inch . 20 18 16 14 12 13 11 11 10 10 

Diameter y^ H 1 ^Vs i'4 Ws 1^ ^% IM 1% 

No. Threads per inch. 998776655 4i^ 

Diameter 2 2i^ 2i^ 2% 23^ 2% 2% 2%, 3 2,}^ 

No. Threads per inch. 4>^ 4^ 4>^ 43^ 4 4 4 4 ^% 3}4 

Diameter d}4 3% %% 3% 3% 3% 4 

ISTo. Threads per inch . 3^4 3)4 3}i 3}i 3 3 3 




UNITED STATES STANDARD THREAD. 

Formula : j 

p = pitch = 

No threads per inch 

d — depth —pX .6495. 



/=flat = 



P 



Diameter . , . . 
No. Threads per inch 
Diameter .... 
No. Threads per inch 
Diameter .... 
No. Threads per inch 
Diameter . . . . 
No. Threads per inch 



1 1% lu 1% 1% \% \% i: 

8 7 7 6 6 51^ 5 



/4 1^ 78 TS 72 TS /& A: /8 

20 18 16 14 13 12 11 10 9 

2 

5 4% 

2% 2M 2% 2% 2% 2% 2;g 3 3^4 

41^ 41^ 4 4 4 4 3}4 3% 3% 
3^4 3% 3K ?>% 3X ^% 4 
3K 31^ 3)^ 3M 3 3 3 




Diameter .... 
No. Threads per inch 
Diameter .... 
No. Threads per inch 
Diameter .... 
No. Threads per inch 
Diameter .... 
No. Threads per inch 



/4 
20 



"WHITWORTH STANDARD THREAD. 

Formula : ^ 

p — pitch = 

No. threads per inch 

d = depth =_px. 64033. 

r = radius —pX .1373. 



36 

18 



11 



/4 
10 



Vs A y2 A % 

16 14 12 12 11 

'A II 1 m 1^ iM 1)^ 1% th ^Ji 

998776655 4)^ 

2 21/ 2M 2% 2}i 2% 2% 2% 3 3}^ 

4:}4 4'4 4 4 4 4 31^ 3K 31^33^ 

314 3% 3K 3% 3% 3% 4 

3% 31^ 334 3)i 3 3 3 



222 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



THE ACME STANDARD THREAD. 




The Acme Standard Thread is an adaptation of the most 
commonly used style of Worm Thread and is intended 
to take the place of the square thread. 

It is a little shallower than the Worm Thread, but the 
same depth as the square thread and much stronger than 
the latter. 

The various parts of the Acme Standard Thread are 
obtained as follows : 

Width of Point of tool for Screw or Tap Thread 

•3707 

= .0052 

No. of Thds. per in. 

Width of Screw or Nut Thread^ 



■3707 



No. of Thds. per in 
Diameter of Tap = Diameter of Screw + .020. 
Diameter of Tap or Screw at Root = 

Diameter of Screw — | + .020 



No. of Linear Thds. per in. 
I 



Depth of thread = 



+ .010 



2 X No. of Thds. per in. 



TABLE OF THREAD PARTS. 



No. Of 


Depth 


"Width at 


Width at 


Space at 


Thickness 


Threads 


of 


Top of 


Bottom of 


Top of 


at Root of 


per inch. 


Thread. 


Thread. 


Thread. 


Thread. 


Thread. 


1 


.5100 


.3707 


.3655 


.6293 


.6345 


1^^ 


.3850 


.2780 


.2728 


.4720 


.4772 


2 


.2600 


.18o3 


.1801 


.3147 


.3199 


3 


.1767 


.1235 


.1183 


.2098 


.2150 


4 


.1350 


.0927 


.0875 


.15^3 


.1625 


5 


.1100 


.0741 


.0689 


.1259 


.1311 


6 


.0933 


.0618 


.0566 


.1049 


.1101 


7 


.0814 


.0529 


.0478 


.0899 


.0951 


8 


.0725 


.0463 


.0411 


.0787 


.0839 


9 


.0655 


.0413 


.0361 


.0699 


.0751 


10 


.0600 


.0371 


.0319 


.0629 


.0681 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS^ TABLES, ETC. 



223 



AVERAGE CUTTING SPEED FOR DRILLS. 

The following table represents the most approved prac- 
tice in rate of cutting speed for drills ranging from 1-16 
inch to 3 inches in diameter. 



Diam. of 


Speed on 


Speed on 


Diam. of 


Speed on 


Speed on 


Drills 


C. Iron 


Steel 


Drills 


C. Iron 


Steel 


1 


2,289 


1,704 


h% 


71 


46 


% 


1,134 


840 


^% 


67 


43 


A 


749 


553 


lii 


64 


41 


J€ 


556 


409 


1^ 


61 


39 


h 


441 


322 


m 


58 


37 


% 


363 


265 


m 


56 


35 


7 

T6 


309 


224 


nt 


53 


33 


H 


267 


193 


2 


51 


31 


9 


235 


169 


2A 


49 


29 


% 


210 


150 


2^ 


47 


28 


\\ 


189 


134 


2A 


45 


26 


% 


171 


121 


2k 


43 


25 


if 


156 


110 


2A 


41 


24 


% 


144 


100 


2% 


39 


23 


IS 


133 


93 


2t^6- 


38 


21 


1 


123 


85 


2>^ 


36 


20 


ItV 


114 


79 


2A 


35 


19 


m 


107 


73 


2.5^ 


34 


18 


i\ 


100 


P8 


2U 


32 


17 


IX 


94 


63 


2^ 


31 


16 


lA 


89 


59 


2H 


30 


15 


1% 


83 


56 


2^ 


29 


15 


1^ 


79 


52 


91B 


28 


14 


^H 


75 


49 


3 


27 


13 



i224 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



TABLE OF CUTTING SPEEDS. 



Feet ^ 
Minute. 


5^ 


10^ 


15' 


20^ 


25^ 


3O'' 


35^ 


40/ 


45' 


50/ 


Di.-\m. 


REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE. 




38.2 


76.4 


114 6 


152.9 


191.1 


229.3 


267.5 


305-7 


344.0 


382.2 


30.6 


61.2 


91.8 


122.5 


153- 1 


183.7 


214.3 


244.9 


275.5 


306.1 


6 


25-4 


50.8 


76.3 


101.7 


127.1 


'52-5 


178.0 


203.4 


228.8 


254.2 


% 


21.8 


43-6 


65-5 


87.3 


109. 1 


130.9 


152.7 


174.5 


196.3 


218.9 


I 


19.1 


38.2 


57-3 


76.4 


95- 5' 


1 14.6 


133.8 


152.9 


172.0- 


191.1 




17.Q 


34- 


51.0 


68.0 


85.6 


102.0 


119.0 


136.0 


153.0 


170.0 


>5-3 


30.6 


45.8 


• 61.2 


76.3 


91.8 


106.9 


122.5 


137.4 


153.1 


1% 


13.9 


27.8 


41.7 


55-6 


69.5 


83.3 


97.2 


III. I 


125.0 


138.9 


12.7 


25.4 


38.2 


50.8 


63.7 


76-3 


89.2 . 


101.7 


114.6 


127.1 


]¥ 


11. 8 


23-5 


3S-0 


47.0 


58.8 


70-5 


82.2 


93-9 


105.7 


117.4 


v4, 


IQ.9 


21.8 


32.7 


43.6 


54-5 


65-5 


76.4 


^3 


98.2 


Tog. t 


10.2 


20.4 


3P-6 


40.7 


50.9 


61.1 


71.3 


81.5 


91.9 


101.^ 


2 


9.6 


19.1 


as. 7 


38.2 


47.8 


57-3 


66.9 


76.4 


86.0 


95.5 


2'4 


8.5 


17,0 


25-4 


34-0 


42.4 


51.0 


59-4 


68.0 


76.2 


85.0 




7.6 


J5-3 


22.9 


30.6 


38.2 


45-8 


53-5 


61.2 


68.8 


76.3 


6.9 


13 9 


20.8 


27.8 


34-7 


41.7 


48.6 


55-6 


62.5 


69.5 


3,, 


6.4 


12.7 


iq. I 


25.5 


31.8 


38.2 


44.6 


51.0 


57-3 


63.7 


3^1^ 


5-5 


10.9 


16.4 


21.8 


27.^ 


327 


38.2 


43-6 


49.1 


54-5 


4. 


4.8 


9.6 


M-3 


19. 1 


23-9 


28.7 


33-4 


38 2 


43.0 


47.8 


4^ 


4.2 


8-5 


12.7 


16.9 


21.2 


25-4 


29.6 


34.0 


38 I 


42.4 


5 


3-8 


7.6 


II. 5 


15-3 


19. 1 


22.9 


26.7 


30-6. 


34-4 


38.2 


1^ 


3-5 


6.9 


10.4 


13.9 


17.4 


20.8 


24-3 


27^.8 


31.3 


34-7 


^ 


3-2 


6.4 


9.6 


12.7 


15-9 


19.1 


22.3 


25' 5 


28.7 


31.8 


7 


2.7 


5-5 


8.1 


10.9 


13-6 


16.4 


iq.i 


21.8 


24.6 


27.3 


8 


2.4 


4.8 


7.2 


9.6 


II. 9 


J 4- 3 


16.7 


19 I 


21. 1 


23.9 


9 


2-1 


4.2 


6.4 


8.5 


10.6 


12.7 


14.9 


17.0 


19.1 


21.2 


lO 


1.9 


3-8 


5-7 


7.6 


9.6 


H-5 


13-4 


15 3 


17.2 


19.1 


11 


1-7 


3-5 


5-2 


6.9 


8.7 


10.4 


12.2 


13-9 


15.6 


17.4 


12 


1.6 


3-2 


4.8 


6.4 


8.0 


9.6 


11. 1 


12.7 


14.3 


15.9 


»3 


1-5 


2.9 


4.4 


5-9 


7-3 


8.8 


10.3 


11.8 


13.2 


14.7 


14 


1.4 


2.7 


4.1 


5-5 


6.8 


8.1 


9.6 


10.9 


12.3 


13.6 


15 


1-3 


2.5 


3-8 


5-1 


6.4 


7.6 


8.9 


10.2 


".5 


12.7 


i6 


1.2 


2.4 


3-6 


4.8 


6.0 


7.2 


8.4 


9.6 


JO. 7 


1 1.9 


17 


i.i 


2,2 


3-4 


4-5 


5-6 


6.7 


7.9 


9.0 


10. 1 


11.2 


i8 


i.i 


2.1 


3-2 


4-2 


5-3 


6.4 


7.4 


8.5 


9.6 


10.6 


19 


1.0 


2.0 


3-0 


4.0 


5.0 


6.0 


7.0 


8.0 


9.1 


10. 1 


20 


I.O 


1.9 


2.9 


3-8 


4.8 


5-7 


6.7 


7.6 


8.6 


9.6 


21 


•9 


1.8 


2.7 


3-6 


4-5 


5-5 


6.4 


7.3 


8.1 


9.1 


22 


•9 


1-7 


2.6 


3-5 


4-3 


5-2 


6.1 


6.9 


7.8 


8.7 


23 


.8 


1-7 


2-5 


3-3 


4.1 


5-0 


5-8 


6.6 


7.5. 


8.3 


24 


.8 


1.6 


2.4 


3-2 


4.0 


4.8 


5.6 


6.4 


7.2 


8.0 


25 


.8 


1-5 


2-3 


3 I 


3-8 


4.6 


5-3 


6.1 


6.9 


7.6 


26 


•7 


1-5 


2.2 


2.9 


3-7 


4.4 


5- 1 


5-9 


6.6 


7-3 


27 


•7 


1.4 


2.1 


2.8 


3-5 


4.2 


5-0 


5-7 


6.4 


7.1 


28 


•7 


1.4 


2.0 


2.7 


3-4 


4.1 


4.8 


5-5 


6.1 


6.^ 


29 


-7 


1-3 


2.0 


2.6 


3-3 


4.0 


4.6 


5-3 


5-9 


6.6 


30 


.6 


1-3 


1.9 


2-5 


3-2 


3-8 


4-5 


5-1 


5.7 


6.4 



MISCELLANEOUS METHODS, TABLES, ETC. 225 



The preceding table is a convenient one for finding the 
number of revolutions per minute required to give a peri- 
phery speed from 5 to 50 feet per minute of diameters 
from J4 inch to 30 inches. 

Examples — A mill 2 inches diam. to have a periphery 
speed of 35 feet per minute, should make about 67 revo- 
lutions, while a iJ/^-inch mill should make 120 revolu- 
tions to have the same periphery speed. If a ^-incli 
m-ill makes 250 revolutions per minute, the periphery speed 
is about 50 feet. 

Horse Power of Belts. — A good method of finding the 
power of a belt, assuming 800 feet travel per minute of 
I inch single belt per horse power. 

Formula — .00033 D. R. B = Horse power. 

D = Diameter of pulley in inches. 

R = Revolutions of pulley per minute. 

B ^= Width of belt in inches. 

Example — 18-inch pulley, 3-inch belt, 150 revolutions 
per minute, .00033 x l8 x 150 x 3 = 2.67 H. P. 

If 1000 feet is assumed instead of 800 feet, use constant 
.C0026 in place of .00033. 



CUTTER LUBRICANT. 

A good lubricant for cutters milling steel or wrought 
iron, is i lb. tallow or i lb. hard or soft soap. Boil and 
add water until about the consistency of cream. 



CHAPTER XII. 

GRINDING THE ACCURATE AND RAPID GRINDING OF TOOLS AND 

SMALL MACHINE PARTS EMERY WHEELS. 

Cutter and Tool Grinding. 

A subject germain to the treatment of steel is that of grinding, 
as in most lines of steel working it occupies an important posi- 
tion. In the following are shown illustrations of approved ma- 
chines for the grmding of fine tool work and accurate small ma- 
chine parts. Descriptions are also given of the correct methods 
of grinding the different tools and parts. 

The machine illustrated in Fig. 146 is of a type used ex- 
tensively for general toolroom work and is one of a class of uni- 
versal cutter and tool grinders which has been greatly improved 
and developed during the last few years. It may be used to grind 
accurately and rapidly work of the following kinds and sizes : 

Milling machine cutters 12 inches in diameter when not more 
than I inch wide. 

Work 14 inches long held between centers when the diameter 
of rotation is not more than 8 inches. These dimensions are given 
as the limit for irregular pieces and not for heavy, solid cylin- 
ders. 

Work 14 inches long can be ground by using an emery wheel 
on each side of the head. 

Reamers and shell counterbores of large or small sizes. 

Gear cutters and formed cutters of every description. 

Flat surfaces, such as shear plates, dies and gages. 

Hardened bushing and other pieces to be ground internallv. 

Conical surfaces, such as taper bearings and mandrels, and 
small cylindrical machine parts w'hich are to be finished with ex- 
treme accuracy. 

The foregoing list does not give the limit of the capacity of 
machine, but rather indicates in a general way what is possible in 
its use. 

For a more particular presentation of the kinds of work which 
can be and are actually ground on such machines, reference is 
made to the following pages. 



GRINDING. 



227 



Prominent Features. 

Those familiar with grinding the side teeth of side milling and 

angular cutters are aware that the tooth rest must be set to the 

exact height so as to bring the cutting edge of the tooth to be 

ground in an exact parallel line with the slide. In some machines 




FIG. 146. — CINCINNATI UNIVERSAL CUTTER AND TOOU GRINDER. 



this adjustment of the tooth rest for this grinding is complicated. 
The difficulty, however, is overcome in this machine, as no atten- 
tion is required to adjust the tooth rest, since it is centrally fixed 
for all diameters of cutters. The tooth rest travels with the cut- 
ter, except in the grinding of spiral mills and large saws. 



228 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 





H 



y/'y 



^ 



I WHIW k 



W^"" 



W/M\\ \ WMm 



I 




>t-V2-» 




h^U^ 



U 






FIG. 147. — SHAPES AND SIZES OF EMERY WHEELS TO USE FOR TOOL 

GRINDING. 



GRINDING. 



229 




■^la. 148. — SAMPLES OP GROUND WORK DONB IN TJNnrERSAL CUTTER 
AND TOOL GRINDER, FIG. 1 46. 



230 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



The side teeth of angular and side milling cutters are ground 
off with practically a straight line clearance. This is done with a 
cup-shape emery wheel 3 inches in diameter on the left side of 
the machine. The advantages of grinding side teeth with a fair 
size emery wheel, and at the same time grinding a straight line 
clearance with an accompanying strong cutting edge, are known 
to those who have heretofore been compelled to use a small wheel 
grinding a hollow clearance and weak-cutting edge. (See Fig. 
149.) 

To prevent the drawing of the temper from cutting edges of 
side mills and the side teeth of angular cutters, etc., which have a 




mG. 149. — GRINDING SIDE TEETH. 

broad surface, it is important that the heel of the tooth be stocked 
out first at a sharp angle, and only a small portion left to be 
ground at a different angle. The change from stocking out to 
the grinding of the cutting edge is quickly made by moving the 
knee a few degrees around the column. 

This feature of revolving the knee around the column has also 
the following advantages : 

Work can be brought in contact with the emery wheels on 
either side of the wheel without rechucking. Also the article to 
be ground can be brought in contact with the emery wheel in the 
most favorable position to either wheel for rapid grinding. For 
an example, a side milling cutter may have the outer teeth ground 
ofif on the straight face emery wheel on the right side of the ma- 



GRINDING. 



231 



chine, and the side teeth on the cup-shape wheel at the left side 
of the machine, without taking the cutter off the arbor or disturb- 
ing the tooth guide. 

Cutters of small diameters and sharp angles can be ground 
without the cutter, mandrel or centers striking the belt or emery 
wheel head. Also in grinding the shoulders, on work revolved 
between centers, the periphery instead of the side of a flat wheel 
can be used. 

Grinding a Spiral Mill. 

Fig. 150 shows the long slide at the rear of the column and 
nearly parallel to the emery wheel spindle, the two swivels set at 




FIG. 150. — GRINDING A SPIRAL MILL. 

zero, a flat wheel on the right of the emery wheel head and the 
mill on the mandrel held between centers. 

Fig. 151 shows a side elevation of the wheel, the centering 
gage, the tooth rest No. 2 and the end of the mill. 

Fig. 152 is an elevation showing the rim of the wheel, the 
face of the mill and the tooth rest in the position required when 
the mill is turned for grinding the next tooth. 

Directions : Adjust the plane of centers below the plane of 
the spindle the distance required for clearance. If the mill is 
cylindrical, set the table at zero ; and if not, set it for the required 
taper. Set the stops on the long slide so that, the mill having 
passed, the cutter will still be held by the flexible part of the 
tooth rest, which will then act as a spring pawl when turning the 
mill to bring the next tooth into position for grinding. In setting 



232 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



the tooth rest the centering gage must come directly opposite to 
part of the wheel which strikes the cutter. 

Grinding Angular Cutters. 
Fig. 153 illustrates the grinding when the cutter is left-hand. 




The flat wheel is on the right-hand end of spindle, the long 
slide is at the rear and right-hand, the cutter is held on work 
spindle and the tooth rest No. 4 is on the horizontal swivel. 

Directions: Set the plane of centers below plane of spindle 



GRINDING. 



^zz. 



the distance required for clearance. Set the long slide at a con- 
venient angle, and then adjust the horizontal swivel to the angle 
required for the cutter. 

Fig. 154 illustrates the grinding when the cutter is right-hand- 




FIG. 153. — GRINDING A LEFT-HAND ANGULAR CUTTER. 




FIG. 154. — GRINDING A RIGHT-HAND ANGULAR CUTTER. 



The explanations and directions for Fig. 153. are sufficient for 
Fig. 154- 

Grinding Side Milling Cutters. 

Fig- 155 shows the situation of the long slide at the back of 
the column, the cutter held by work spindle alone, the fiat wheel 
on the right of the emery wheel head, and the tooth rest No. 5 
fastened to the horizontal swivel. 



234 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



Directions : Set the plane of centers the distance below the 
plane of the spindle required for clearance. 

Fig. 156 shows the left-hand radial teeth in position for grind- 
ing, the 3-inch cup wheel on the left of the emery wheel head, 




the long slide on the left, the universal head on the end of the 
table and tooth rest No. 3 on the horizontal swivel. 

It will be observed in the cuts that the side of the cutter 
opposite the one being ground is always closer to the emery wheel 
head than the other ; that is, the index on the knee will point about 
5 degrees beyond the 90 degree point. 



GRINDING. 



235 



Directions : Set the vertical swivel so as to depress the outer 
end of the work spindle the number of degrees required for clear- 
ance. This ranges from 5 degrees to 20 degrees, depending upon 
the clearance required. 

The manner in which shell counterbores may be ground is 




shown clearly in Fig. 157, and but little description is necessary. 
In grinding such tools, a stud, which fits the taper hole in the 
work spindle and the hole in the counterbore, is required. 



236 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



Grinding Milling Cutters or Metal Slitting Sazvs from 8 to 12 
Inches in Diameter. 
Fig. 159 is a plan showing the 3-inch emery wheel, the saw or 
cutter, the horizontal swivel and the tooth rest No. 3 in position- 




FIG. 157. — GRINDING SHKLIy COUNTERBORES. 




b:/ Emeby 'Wheel 

FIG. I5S. FIG. 159. 

GRINDING MILLING CUTTERS OR METAL SAWS OF LARGE DIAMETERS. 



GRINDING. 



^Z7 



for grinding, while Fig. 158 shows an elevation of Fig. 159, show- 
ing the long slide at the rear of the column end parallel to the em- 
ery wheel spindle, the universal head at the tail stock end of the 
table, the saw held by work spindle alone, and the 3-inch emery 
wheel on the left of the wheel head. The saw is clamped to the 
work spindle by means of the long screw with nut and collar for 
that purpose. 



LJ 
I- 

XA 

z 
< 



< 

Q 

_l 
O 
O 





238 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



Directions : Set the plane of the centers below the spindle 
plane the distance required for clearance. Set both swivels and 
table at zero. 

Large saws, up to 24 inches in diameter, such as are used in 
cold saw cutting-off machines, are ground as shown in Fig. 160. 
It will be noticed that the universal head is here reversed on the 
table and the tooth rest placed on the emery wheel head. 

Gear Cutter Grinding. 
Figs. 161 and 162 represent an elevation and plan of the gear- 
cutter grinding attachment. The platen which holds cutter is 
fitted to the slot in the table and clamped to it by bolt and nut. 




(0 's s| 
FIG. 161. — ELEVATION OF GEAR CUTTER GRINDING ATTACHMENT. 

The table should be set right angular to the slide and the slide 
at a right angle to the axis of the emery wheel spindle (see dotted 
lines), as this position brings only the edge of the emery wheel in 
contact with the work, permitting a heavy cut to be taken without 
danger of heating. 

In adjusting the cutter for grinding, the centering gage be- 
longing to the attachment is set over against the face of the tooth. 
Then the pawl holder is clamped so as to bring the pawl tooth rest 
against the heel of the tooth. After swinging the centering gage 
out of the way, as shown in cut, the grinding may proceed. Thus, 
with this arrangement, gear and formed cutters can be ground 
correctly and in less time than by hand. Bushings for the various 
sizes of holes in standard gear cutters and emery wheel No. 3 
are required with this attachment. 



GRINDING. 



239 




:240 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



Grinding Formed Cutters. 

Fig. 163 shows the table and long slide on the right of the col- 
umn, the dish-shaped wheel on the right-hand end of the spindle, 
the two arms by means of which the center of the cutter mav 
be held below the top of the table and the tooth rest No. 5 which 
engages with the heel of the tooth to be ground. 

Directions : Set the axis of the long slide at right angle to 
that of the spindle by means of dial on column. Set the lower line 




I^IG. 163. — GRINDING A FORMED CUTTER. 

•of centers so that it will intersect the vertical diameter at the 
side of the wheel. This adjustment can be readily made by bring- 
ing the point of the tail stock center nearly in line with the side of 
a straight edge held vertically against the flat side of the wheel. 
Put the cutter on a mandrel between centers and set the face of a 
tooth against the side of the wheel, making an allowance for 
amount to be ground off. To hold the face in this position, ad- 
just tooth rest No. 5 to the heel of the tooth. Determine the 
•depth of cut by short slide. 



GRINDING. 



241 



How to Grind a Worm Wheel Hob. 

Fig. 164 shows the long slide on the left of the column, the 
special attachment on the table for holding the mandrel, the disk- 
shape wheel No. 3 on the left-hand end of the spindle and the 
table in line with the long slide. 

Directions: See those given for grinding formed cutters. 

Grinding a Hand Reamer. 
Fig. 165 shows the long slide on the left, the cup-shape wheel 




FIG. 164. — GRINDING A WORM WHFKIv HOB. 



on the left-hand end of spindle and the tooth rest No. i fastened 
to the top of the table. 

Directions: Set the tooth rest below plane of centers a suffi- 
cient distance for clearance when grinding straight reamers. Set 
the table to grind straight. To grind bevel on end of reamer set 
table to angle required; or as shown in Fig. 166. 

Grinding a Taper Reamer. 

Fig. 167 shows the long slide at the rear right of emery wheel 
head, the table set obliquely to' the side, the swivels at zero, the 
reamer between dead centers, a flat wheel at the right-hand end 
of the spindle and the tooth rest No. 3 fastened to the swivel. 

Directions : Set the tooth rest in the plane of centers. Set 



242 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




PIG. 165. — GRINDING A HAND REAMER. 




FIG. 166. — GRINDING BEVEI. ON END OP REAMER. 



GRINDING. 



243 



the plane of centers below the plane of spindle the distance re- 
quired for clearance. Set the table at the angle required for 
taper. 

How to Grind a Har\dened Drilling Jig Bushing. 
Fig. 168 shows the emery wheel spindle with flat wheel on the 
right, the long slide on the right to the rear of the machine, the 
table set at zero, the grooved pulley running loose on the work 
spindle, which is locked by a knurled screw, the jig bushing on a 
mandrel held between dead centers and turned by a dog engaging 
with the grooved pulley. 




FIG. 167. — GRINDING A TAPER REAMER. 



Eine of Motion 




PIG. 168. — GRINDING A HARDENED JIG BUSHING. 



244 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



How to Grind a Taper Spindle. 
Fig. 169 shows the long sHde at the back of the column, the 
wheel on the right of the spindle, the table set for the required 
taper, and the grooved pulley running loose on the work spindle. 
In circular grinding when the piece is held by the work spindle 
alone the grooved pulley is locked to the spindle. 




Emery wheel shape No. 3 is used for taking deep cuts ; shape 
No. 5 for finishing the surface. 

The centers in work that has to be ground must be very care- 
fully made and held to proper shape. Hardened pieces must have 
centers lapped as nearly round as possible in order to obtain good 
results. 



GRINDING. 



245 



How to Grind a Slitting Knife with Beveled Edges. 
Fig. 170 shows the wheel on the right of the emery wheel 
head, the long slide and table at the back of the column, the hori- 
zontal swivel set at the angle required by the face of the knife, 




the grooved pulley locked to the work spindle which holds the 
knife by bushing and long screw. 

Internal Grinding. 
Fig. 171 shows the long slide and table at the rear of the 
column and parallel to the spindle of the emery wheel ; the piece 
to be ground is fastened to the work spindle, the internal grinding 



246 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




FIG. 171.— INTERNAL GRINDING. 




1^ 1 

FIG. 172.— GRINDING A STRAIGHT EDGE). 



GRINDING. 



247 



attachment is fastened to the emery wheel head, with its pulley 
belted to the pulley on the right of the column. 

Grinding a Straight Edge. 
Fig. 172 shows the long slide on the left and parallel to the 




table, the straight edge clamped to its place, and a cup-shape 
wheel on the left of the spindle. 

Grinding a Shear Plate. 
Fig. 173 is an elevation showing on the left parallel to the 
table, the cup-shape wheel on the left and the shear plate clamped 
to the table. 



248 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



Hozv to Grind a Die Blank to the Required Angle. 

Fig. 174 shows the long slide on the left, the table across the 
slide, the vise in the place of the universal head, the cup-shape 






1^- •;.;■:,-■■■••/--- l^j.yK&>iffi^^^ 





wheel on the left, and the vise turned on its pivot to the required 
angle. 

Grinding a Formed Tool on Its Face. 

Fig. 175 shows the long slide on the left, the table set at zero, 
the cup-shape wheel on the left of the emery wheel head, the 
vise set at 90 deg. for convenience in holding a screw machine 
form tool when grinding its face. 



GRINDING. 



249 




FIG. 175. — GRINDING THE) FACE; OP A FORMED TOOL. 




PIG. 176. — CUTTING OFF WITH THE EMERY WHEEL. 



250 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



The Emery Wheel Used as a Metal Saw. 
The engraving, Fig. 176, shows the vise on the table in the 
place of the universal head, the long slide at the right of the col- 
umn, the table across the slide, and a wheel on the right of the 
spindle 1-16 inch thick and 8 inches in diameter. Brass Lubing 
and small steel bars can be readily and smoothly cut into pieces 
by means described. 

Grinding a Gage to a Given Dimension. 
Fig. 177 is a plan view showing the long slide on the left, 




GRINDING. 



251 



the table across the sHde, the vise in place of the universal head, 
the gage with one of its faces against the cup-shaped emery 
wheel on the left. 

• Attachment for Surface Grinding. 
The attachment shown in Fig. 178 includes the vise shown, 
with angle and emery wheel No. 4. 



OIXXX) 




FIG. 178. — SURFACE GRINDING ATTACHMENT. 



The vise may be clamped to the table at any point in its 
length. 

Work held in its jaws can be presented at any angle whatever 
in regard to the axis of the emery wheel head, by making suitable 
adjustment of the swivel vise, the table and the long slide. 

It has a graduated arc to measure the angle of elevation or 
depression at which the work is presented to the side of the 
emery wheel. 



252 



HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



How to Grind Milling Cutters and Metal-Slitting Saivis Straight 

or Concave. 
Fig. 179 shows the emery wheel head with a wheel on the 
right, the long slide and table parallel to the emery wheel spindle. 




the horizontal swivel set at 90, and the saw fastened to work- 
spindle. 

The round belt should be as loose as possible. 

General Directions. 
Hold the cutter to the tooth rest by hand. 
In all cases when it is possible, limit the movement of the 



GRINDING. 253 

long slide by the stops furnished for the purpose, for the follow- 
ing reasons : 

It prevents the wheel from striking the head stock or cutter 
in concave grinding. 

It prevents the wheel from running too deep into formed 
cutters and side milling cutters when grinding radial teeth. 

It prevents the cutter from passing off the tooth rest, besides 
being convenient in quite a number of other instances occurring 
in the use of the grinder. 

It is convenient and sometimes necessary in grinding cutters 
for clearance on the right-hand end of the emery wheel spindle, 
to swing the knee on the column to the right at an angle of from 
5 to 15. This applies especially in angle cutters and smali 
cylindrical cutters, when the belt is liable to strike the cutter or 
center. 

After cutters have been reground once or twice the land be- 
comes thick ; it is very convenient under these conditions to 
swing the knee slightly around the column 2 or 3 degrees, and 
grind with a heavy broad cut between the teeth so as to reduce 
the amount of the land. 

After the land is reduced to the proper width a slight move- 
ment of the knee back about i degree will alter the angle of the 
cut in such a way as to produce a narrow land with a keen cutting 
edge without danger of drawing temper. 

The life of a cutter by this means is very much prolonged. 

In using the lever or screw feed handles, adjust them by 
means of the clamp screws at bottom of long slide holder to the 
most convenient position. 

Use the centering gage for determining the relative height 
of center of emery wheel spindle and tail stock center. 

Diamond Tool Holder. 
In order to obtain a good cutting edge and make a smooth 
finish on work, the emery wheel on a universal cutter and tool 
grinder must run true and have its cutting surface parallel with 
the movement on the slide of the machine. The cut, Fig. 180, 
shows a diamond tool and holder for truing emery wheels. This 
tool is made to be used either by hand or clamped to the table 
of the machine so that the diamond can be passed across the wheel 
in line with the slide in any position. It is absolutely necessary 
to have the wheel perfectly true on work ground between centers. 



254 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

The proper use of this device will greatly increase the effi- 
ciency of any universal cutter and tool grinder, both as to quan- 
tity and quality of work produced. 

A Small Cut'tcr Grinder. 
The small ''Garvin" cutter grinder shown in Figs. i8i to 183 




FIG. I 



DIAMOND TOOL HOLDER FOR WHKEL TRUING. 



has ample capacity for all the ordinary sizes and varieties of mill- 
ing cutters, while its compactness and small cost render it 
practicable to have several distributed around in the vicinity of 




FIG. 181. — GRINDING A HOLLOW MILL. 

each group of milling machines, where they will prove a valuable 
addition to the plant and soon pay for themselves in time saved. 

The machine is well made throughout, and will grind straight 
or spiral mills and shell reamers from five inches diameter and 
four inches face down to the smallest side or face mills ; bevel or 
angle-cutters from eight inches down ; hand, machine, rose and 



GRINDING. 255 

taper reamers, as large as one and one-half inches diameter and 
eight inches long ; butt mills, either straight or taper ; .cutters for 
milling T-slots, and hollow mills, such as used on screw-ma- 
chines ; saws, cutters for gear teeth, drills, and all such tools as 
are generally ground by hand can also be handled. Both spindle 
and arbor are of steel, hardened and ground, the latter to one 




FIG. 182. — GRINDING A HAND REAMER. 

inch standard size. All adjusting screws and nuts are case- 
hardened and fit wrench attached to the machine. The machine 
can be placed on the bench where most convenient -and driven 
by straight or quarter-turned belt. 

The spindle is provided with an eccentric adjustment for 
feeding the wheel against the work. 




EIG. 183. — GRINDING AN ANGULAR CUTTER. 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




FIG. 184. — ATTACHMENTS FOR " GARVIN " UNIVERSAL CUTTER 
AND TOOI, GRINDER. 



Fig. I. Reamer Centers, holding work three inches in diameter, and at any length iip to 
eighteen inclies. Fig. 2. Three-quarter inch Cutter Arbor. Fig. 3. Three-quarter 
inch Adjustable Collar, for three-quarter inch arbor. Fig. 4. Three-quarter inch 
Cutter Sleeve, with adjustable stepped collar, for holding cutters of one, one and 
one-eighth and one and one-quarter inch bore, of any length up to five inches. 
Fig. 5. One-half inch Cutter Sleeve, -with adjustable stepped collar, for cutters of 
five-eighth, three-quarter and seven-eighth inch bore, and up to three and one-half 
inches long. Fig. 6. One-half inch Cutter Arbor. Fig. 7. One-half inch Adjustable 
Collar, for one-half inch arbor. Fig. 8. Face Mill Stud, to be used on grinding table. 
Fig. 9. Cutter Stud, for use in universal head. Fig. 10. Socket, for grinding small 
end mills. Figs. 11 and 12. Special Finger Attachment, for grinding end mills. 
Fig 13. Universal Finger and Holder, for general use. Figs. 14, 15 and 16. Three 
Arbors, with three styles of emery wheels. Fig. 17. X,arge emery wheel, for rear 
end of spindle. Fig. 18. Univer.'^al Cutter Head, ifor use onthe grinding table. Fig. 
19. Arbor Socket. This socket is fitted with the Garvin and B. & S. taper. Fig. 20. 
The only vvrench used on the jnachine. Fig. 21. Crank Wrench, for the grinding 
table. 



GRINDING. 



257 



Illustrations Shozving Various Work Performed on a Different 
Type of Universal Cutter and Tool Grinder. 

In the following pages will be found a series of illustrations 
showing some of the many kinds of work for which a Garvin 
universal cutter and tool grinder is adapted, also showing how to 
set the machine for doing this work. As a decided advantage 
over some machines, one can grind all work (except small-end 
mills) with the universal finger holder attached to and adjustable 
with the extended spindle-bearing, thus avoiding the accurate 
adjusting of the cutter-tooth with the line of feedj which is 
essential where the finger, or tooth-rest, moves with the work. 
This construction also permits of a very fine adjustment of the 
finger, which is obtained by slightly loosening the clamp and 
gradually swinging the entire finger-holder away from, or in 
toward the wheel, thus obtaining a greater or less amount of 
"backing-off to the teeth, as may be required. 

In all cases the face of the finger should be placed parallel 
with the tooth of the cutter and point against the direction of 
the wheel, as the spindle is run in one direction only. 

When using the finger the stops on the grinding-table should 
be set so as not to allow the tooth to pass out of engagement with 
the finger. At the beginning of the stroke the tooth should only 
engage with the spring-pawl of the finger, which will allow the 
cutter to be turned around. 

Fig, 185. Grinding the sides of face or straddle mills. The 




FIG. 185. — GRINDING SIDE OF A STRADDLE) MILIy. 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

cutter is held directly on the table and revolved on the face mill 
stud (Fig. 8). 

Fig. i86. Grinding the reverse side of the same face mill ; 




PIG. I 



GRINDING THE REVERSE) SIDE OE A STRADDLE MILL. 



no change in adjustment has been made, only the sliding plat- 
form has been moved on the knee. 

Fig. 187. Grinding the face of a straddle mill, carried on a 
?tud in the universal cutter head (Figs. 9 and 18) ; the grinding 
table being- locked. 




FIG. 187. — GRINDING THE FACE OF A STRADDLE MILL. 



GRINDING. 



=oy 



Fig. i88. Grinding a spiral tooth-cutter, carried on one of 
the sleeves (Figs. 4 or 5) which is made to slide on the arbor 
between the head and the adjustable collar; the grinding table 
locked by gib binder. 

Fig. 189. Grinding a bevel cutter, placed on the cutter-stud 
(Fig. 9) ; clamped at the proper angle in the universal cutter 
xiead ; the table moved between stops. 




mo. 188. — GRINDING A SPIRAI, TOOTH CUTTER. 




FIG. 189. — GRINDING A BEVEII/ CUTTER. 



26o 



HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 



Fig. 190. Sharpening a tap held in the reamer centers, which 
are carried in the universal cutter head. 

Fig. 191. Grinding a taper reamer in a manner which pro- 
cures a straisfht backing: off to the teeth. 




FIG. 190. — SHARPENING A TAP ALONG ITS FLUTKS. 




FIG. 191. — GRINDING A TAPER REAMER WITH A STRAIGHT 
BACKING OFF. 



GRINDING, 



261 



Fig. 192. Grinding a taper reamer so as to produce a shear 
form of cutting edge. 

Fig. 193. Grinding the face of a small end mill, held in the 
end mill fixture (Fig. 10) using the special finger-holder (Figs. 
11 and 12). 




FIG. 192. — GRINDING A TAPER REAMER WITH A SHEAR 
BACKING OFF. 




FIG. 193. — GRINDING THE FACE OF A SMALL END MILL. 



262 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Fig. 194. Grinding the sides of an end mill, using the same 
fixtures. 

Fig. 195. Grinding the face of a double end butt mill on its 
arbor and placed in the arbor socket (Fig. 19). A light applica- 
tion of oil will produce the proper tension in the socket. 




FIG. 194. — GRINDING THE SIDES OP AN END MILL. 




EIG. 195. — GRINDING THE FACE OF A DOUBLE END BUTT MILL. 



GRINDING. 263 

Fig. 196. Grinding the bevel corner on a double end butt 
mill. 

Fig. 197. Grinding a gang of mills without removing them 
from their arbor, which is placed in arbor socket (Fig. 19). 




FIG. 196. — GRINDING THE BEVEL CORNER ON A DOUBLE END 
BUTT MILL. 




FIG. 197. — GRINDING A GANG OP MILLS ON THEIR OWN ARBOR. 

Fig. 198. Grinding an inserted tooth mill. 
Fig. 199. Grinding a die in its bolster bolted to grinding 
table. 



264 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 




FIG. 198. — GRINDING AN INSERTED TOOTH MII.I,. 




FIG. 199. — GRINDING A DIE IN ITS BOLSTER. 



GRINDING. 



265 



Fig. 200. Grinding a snap-gage in a vise bolted to the grind- 
ing table. All kinds of surface work, such as straight edges, snap 




PIG. 200. — GRINDING A SNAP GAGEJ. 



gages, punches, calipers, test blocks, etc., may be easily and quickly 
ground in this fixture. 

Emery Wheels — -Their Use. 

The emery wheel consists of grains of emery and a com- 
position called the texture which binds these grains together. 

In regard to the size of the grains the wheel is said to be 
fine or coarse in grade. In regard to its texture it is called hard 
or soft. 

To distinguish the grades, they are numbered from the di- 
mension of the meshes through which the grains pass. 

Thus grade 10 means that the distance between the wires of 
the mesh is 10 to the inch. 

Some of the substances used to hold the grains of emery 
together are hard rubber, shellac, ordinary glue and a mixture of 
linseed oil and litharge. 

The relative hardness of the texture is indicated by letters. 
Thus, A indicates a soft wheel ; B, a harder wheel ; M, medium 
wheel, and so on. 

The vitrified emery wheel is made with a cement which con- 
tracts slightly while cooling, leaving small pores or cells through 
which water introduced at the center is thrown to the surface bv 



266 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

centrifugal force. This flow of water operates to carry off the 
cuttings and the detached emery. 

The grade and texture of the wheel in certain kinds of work 
is fairly within the following limits : 

Wheels of coarse grain and hard texture are suitable for 
rough grinding such as the smoothing down of protuberances 
and in other rough work in which accuracy and finish are not 
required. 

Wheels having medium grains and hard texture are service- 
able in grinding lathe tools, for gumming saws, etc. 

Wheels with medium grains and soft texture are suitable for 
free cutting on broad surfaces of iron, steel or brass. 

Wheels with fine grain and soft texture are suitable for grind- 
ing fine tools, such as milling machine cutters for which the 
duty is light, but the demand for accuracy imperative. 

One of the important conditions of accuracy is that the wheels 
vary in the least possible degree in shape or diameter from start 
to finish in a series of cuts. 

The wheel with fine grain and hard texture is suitable for 
smooth grinding on soft metals such as cast-iron or brass. 

A wheel glazes or gums if its grains are held too long by its 
texture. 

The ideal duty of a wheel consists in having its grains dis- 
placed as soon as they become unfit for further service. 

As the wheel in use wears out of true, it can be trued by a 
little black diamond point, and if very accurate grinding or a fine 
finish is required, the diamond should be carried across the sur- 
face of the wheel by the long slide. 

If it is required to do heavy cutting, the emer\^ wheel should 
be trued at a comparatively slow speed. 

If the wheel becomes glazed, its surface may be improved by 
a coarse file or a piece of pumice stone. 

Emery wheels should be kept clean and free from oil, and 
should not present more than 1-16 to ^ of an inch to the surface 
of the work. This provision is particularly applicable to cup- 
shape wheels. 

If it is desired to put an exceedingly fine finish on such work 
as arbors, spindles, standards, etc., after they have been ground 
true, a wheel of 80 or 100 grade emery, with not more than 
ys inch face, should be used for taking this finishing cut. 

However, very finely finished surfaces can be obtained with a 



GRINDING. 



267 



wheel as coarse as 40 grade emery, if the work is passed very 
slowly across the face of the wheel and the wheel allowed to cut 
but slightly. 

In regard to finish, it is to be observed that the harder the 
substance to be ground the coarser must be the grade of the 
wheel. 

Thus the finishing of steel requires a coarser grade of wheel 
than the finishing of copper. 

If a wheel is too hard for the substance it is cutting, it may 
heat or chatter ; this can be obviated somewhat b}' diminishing 
the width of the cutting surface, but it is much better to use a 
softer wheel and full width of cutting surface. 

As a rule a soft wheel can be run more rapidly than a hard 



3200 




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3000 




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APPROXIMATE 

SPEEDS FOR 

EMERY & POLISHING WHEELS. 








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2800 










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2600 


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6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 
INCHES DIAMETER OF WHEEL 

FIG. 201. — DIAGRAM FOR DETERMINING SPEEDS OP EMERY WHEELS. 



268 HARDENING^ TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

one without changing the temperature of the work. Accord- 
ingly there is an advantage in two speeds for the emery wheel 
spindle. 

For internal grinding the wheel should be softer than for 
external grinding, and the work should revolve so as to give the 
wheel opportunity to do its work. 

There can be no hard and fast rules for the speed of emery 
and polishing wheels since there is so great a variety in the 
nature of the work to be done, but a peripheral speed of about a 
mile a minute for ordinary emery wheels is commonly regarded 
as good practice. For water tool grinders the speed is usually 
about two-thirds that of dry grinders while on the other hand, 
polishing wheels are generally run at about one and one-half, 
and bufif wheels at twice the speed of dry grinders. 

The diagram, Fig. 201, affords a convenient means for deter- 
mining the revolutions that will give the above speeds and will 
be preferred by many to a table of figures. It is necessary only 
to trace a vertical line from the figure representing the diameter 
of the wheel to the proper curve and from the intersection point 
to trace a horizontal line to the figure which will give the revolu- 
tions per minute, 



TABLE OF ARTICLES MADE FROM CRUCIBLE STEEL, 

GIVING ABOUT PERCENTAGE OF CARBON 

THEY SHOULD CONTAIN. 

A. 

Carbon. 

Arbor, saw • • ._ 0.60 to 0.70 

Auger, salt 0.70 to 0.80 

Auger, wood 0.70 to 0.80 

Axe 1.20 

Axe, broad •• 1.15 

Axe, overcoat 1.15 

Axe, stone 0.80 to 0.85 

B. 

^all bearing 1.20 

Ball bearing plates 1.15 

Back, butcher 0.80 to 0.90 

Barrel, gun 0.60 to 0.70 

Bits, auger 0.50 to 0.65 

Bits, axe . i.io to 1.15 

Bits, channeling machine 1.15 

Bits, j ointer . 1.20 

Bits, mining 0.80 

Bits, saw 0.80 

Bits, scarf 1.22 

Bits, tong . 1. 15 

Bits, well, for stone drilling 0.80 to 0.84 

"Bits, artesian well .0.80 to 0.84 

Bites, plier i.oo to i.io 

Blade, table > 0.70 

Blade, knife • • 1.15 

Blade, ' pocket 0.90 

Blade, reamer 1.20 to 1.22 

Blanks, milling cutter 1.15 

Bolts, set 0.60 to 0.70 

Bushing, spring • 0.80 

c. 

Canes for hitting and missing devices on gas engines 0.80 

Carriers, gun 0.60 to 0.70 

Carver i.oo to i.io 



270 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Carbon. 

Centers, lathe 0.80 to o.go 

Chisels for cutting files 1.20 

Chisels, chipping . i.io 

Chisels, clay 0.80 to o.go 

Chisels for hot work . 0.60 to 0.70 

Chisels, railroad track 0.85 

Chisels, blacksmiths' cold • • 0.85 

Chisels, stone cutters' 0.80 to 0.85 

Chisels, wood working 1.20 to 1.22 

Chisels, brick 0.60 to 0.70 

Claw bars (pulling spikes) 0.65 to 0.75 

Cone, bicycle 0.70 to 0.80 

Creaser 1.20 to 1.25 

Cruciform, drill 0.95 to i.io 

Cups, boiler makers' 0.60 to 0.70 

Cutters, flue • • 1.20 to 1.25 

Cutters, glass 1.20 to 1.25 

Cutters, milling • • 1.20 to 1.25 

Cutters, nail 1.20 to 1.25 

Cutters, corn stalk 0.80 to i.oo 

Cutters, pipe 1.20 to 1.20 

Cutters, tong 1.20 to 1.22 



D. 



Dies, 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies- 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 
Dies 



bolt 0.60 to 0.70 

blanking (bottom dies) 0.85 to 0.90 

cartridge shell 1.20 to 1.22 

lever link 0.85 to 0.90 

cold heating 1.15 

cutlery 0.80 to 0.85 

envelope '. 1.15 

drop forging 0.85 to 0.90 

drop forging, for making table knives 0.68 to 0.78 

hammer 0.67 to 0.78 

horseshoe (cold punching) . 1.20 to 1.22 

glove 0.85 to 0.90 

nail 1. 15 

paper cutting 1.15 

pipe 1. 15 to 1.22 

rivet 0.60 to 0.70 

shoe 0.70 to 0.80 

silver spoon 0.85 to 0.90 

silversmiths' 1.15 

tong I.IO to 1. 18 

wire drawing 1.20 to 1.22 

Dies for pointing machine 1.15 

Dies for manufacture of files. 0.67 to 0.78 



TABLE OF ARTICLES MADE FROM CRUCIBLE STEEL. 2/1 

Carbon. 

Digging bars 0.85 to 0.90 

Dog, cant • • . . .0.90 to i.oo 

Drills for drilling tool steel shear knives 1.15 to 1.20 

Drills for boring out shotgun barrels- i.io 

Drills, star i.io 

Drills, quarry • .1.10 to 1.18 

Drills, twist 1.20 to 1.22 

Driver, screw • • 0.60 to 0.70 



Edge, straight 1.05 to 1.12 

Expander sections 1.20 to 1.22 



Facing, anvil 0.85 to 0.90 

Feather 0.60 to 0.70 

File, cabinet 1.20 to 1.25 

File, cant saw 1.25 to 1.30 

File, Great American cross cut 1.25 to 1.30 

File, pillow 1.25 to 1.30 

File, slim taper 1.25 to 1.30 

Fork 0.90 to I.IO 

Fork, carver 0.58 to 0.62 

Furnace bars 0.60 to 0.70 

Flatters 0.60 to 0.70- 



Glut 0.60 to 0.70 

Grab ....-• 0.70 to 0.90 

Grips in tube works 0.85 to 0.9a 

H. 

Hammer, bush 1.25 to 1.3a 

Hammer, blacksmiths' 0.67 to 0.78 

Hammer, bush for granite 1.15 

Hammer, machinists' 0.90 to i.oo 

Hammer, nail machine 1.05 to i.io 

Hammer, peen 1.15 

Hammer, pneumatic • • 0.60 to 0.7a 

Hammer, ball peen 0.80 to 0.85 

Hardies 0.60 to 0.70 

Hatchet 1.15 to 1.22 

Hoe 0.85 to o.yo 



2^2 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

Carbon. 

Holders, tool 0.85 to 0.90 

Hook, cant 0.85 to 0.90 

Hook, cant, for hammer dies . 0.68 to 0.78 

Hook, grass 0.60 to 070 

Hobs, for dies 0.85 to 0.90 

J. 

Jar 0.73 to 0.7S 

Jaw, chuck 0.85 to o.QO 

Jaw, gripping 0.85 to 0.90 

Jaw, vise 0.85 to 0.90 

Jaw for pipe machine 1.15 

Jaw, wire puller. i.io to 1.18 

K. 

Key for hammer 0.75 to 0.80 

Knife, belt 0.80 to 0.85 

Knife, blade • i.oo 

Knife, scarfing 0.90 to 0.95 

Knife, corn 0.80 to i.uo 

Knife, draw 1.20 to 1.22 

Knife, envelope 1.20 to 1.22 

Knife, hog 1.15 

Knife, machine • 1.20 to 1.22 

Knife, paper 1.15 

Knife, pug mill 1.05 to i.io 

Knife, shear 0.85 to 0.90 

Knife, whittler 1.15 

Knife, wood working 1.15 to 1.20 

Knife, carver i.oo 

Knife, putty • 0.90 to i.oo 

Knife, straw cutter 0.80 to 0.90 

L. 

Lining for brick dies 1.20 to 1.25 

Links, valve 0.60 to 0.70 

M. 

Magnet for telephones i.io to 1.17 

Magnet 1.23 to 1.25 

Mandrel 1.05 to i.io 

Mauls 0.65 to 0.75 

Mauls, wood choppers' 0.70 to 0.75 

Molds, carbon 0.87 to 0.95 



TABLE OF ARTICLES MADE FROM CRUCIBLE STEEL. 273 

Carbon. 

Molds, brick 0.80 to 0.90 

Machinery, crucible • • 0.55 to 0.65 

Mattock 0.60 to 0.80 

Mower, ' lawn i.oo 



N. 
Nut cracker and pick 0.70 to 0.73 

P. 

Pick 0.70 to o.So 

■ Pick, mill 1.20 to 1.22 

Piercers for nail machine i.io 

Pinch bars 0.75 to 0.85 

Pin, crank. 0.55 to 0.65 

Pin, eye 0.75 to 0.80 

Pm, drift 0.60 to 0.70 

Pin, expander i.oo to i.io 

Pin, lever i .05 to i . 10 

Pitching tool 0.80 to 0.S5 

Pivot 1.05 to I. :o 

Planer, stone 0.70 to 0.80 

Planer, wood. 1.15 

Plates, guard 0.90 to i.oo 

Plates for brick dies 0.85 to o.go 

Plate, throat, for hog 0.85 to 0.90 

Plate, tool 0.90 to 0.95 

Plow, crucible, for bicycle road scraper 0.85 to 0.90 

Plow, ice 0.80 to 0.85 

Plug 0.60 to 0.70 

Plungers for bolt machine ■ -0.60 to 0.70 

Plungers 0.85 to 0.90 

Pliers . 0.85 to 0.95 

Point 0.85 to 0.90 

Point, clay pick .0.85 to 0.90 

Point, piercing 1.40 to 1.50 

Puller, nail . . .1.20 to i.;.^ 

Punch, cartridge shell 1.20 to 1.22 

Punch, hot work 0.85 to 0.90 

Punch, file blank i .20 to i .22 

Punch, skate blade 0.85 to o.go 

Punch, washer 0.80 to 0.8S 

Punch, oil cloth • 0.85 to o.go 

Punch, blacksmith 0.80 to 0.85 

Punch, railroad track 0.85 



274 HARDENING, TEMPERING AND ANNEALING. 

R. 

Carbon. 

Racer, ball 0.90 to 0.95 

Rake 1.15 to 1.25 

Reins, tong 0.60 to 0.70 

Ring 0.85 to 0.90 

Rods, bench 0.66 to 0.76 

Rods, piston 0.70 to 0.80 

Rolls, expander .1.05 to i.io 

Rolls for hitting and missing device on gas engine .0.85' to o.po 

Rolls, loom mill 0.55 to 0.65 

Rolls for holding steel scrap on wooden shovel handles 0.85 to 0.90 



S. 

Saws, circular 0.80 to 0.90 

Saws for sawing steel 1.60 

Saws, cross cut 0.85 to i.oo 

Saws, band , 0.68 to 0.75 

Saws, drag 0.95 

Saws, pit 0.85 to i.GO 

Saws, mill 1.25 to 1.30 

Saws, gang • • 0.90 to i.oo 

Scarf • • 1.20 to 1.25 

Scrapers, road 0.60 to 0.70 

Scrapers, tube • • 1.20 to 1.22 

Screws on elevators 0.85 to 0.90 

Screws, set 0.65 to 0.75 

Sets, rivet 0.65 to 0.75 

Sets, button 0.65 to 0.75 

Scythe edge 1.20 to 1.22 

Shafts for skull cracker crane 0.60 to 0.70 

Shafts, quick running motor 0.55 to 0.65 

Shear, , pruning 0.85 to 0.93 

Shear, sheep 0.96 

Shim 0.60 to 0.70 

Skate 1. 15 

Sledge 0.65 to 0.75 

Slides 1.20 to 1.22 

Snaps 0.60 to 0.70 

Spindle 0.55 to 0.G5 

Spring, common locking 1.20 to 1.25 

Spring, knotter. 1.20 to 1.25 

Spring, railroad 0.90 to i.io 

Spring, locomotive 0.90 to i.io 

Steel, carver i .40 

Stretching bars. 1.27 

Swages, saw 0.85 to 0.90 



TABLE OF ARTICLES MADE FROM CRUCIBLE STEEL. 2/5 

T. 

Carbon. 

Taps 1.20 to 1.22 

Taps, nut 1.15 

Taps, spindle 1.20 to 1.22 

Teeth, car wheel 0.85 to o.go 

Teeth, dredge bucket 0.75 to 0.83 

Teeth, shovel 0.60 to 0.70 

Teeth, saw 0.85 to 0.90 

Tip 0.70 

Tongs 0.90 to 0.95 

Tongs, ingot 0.85 to 0.95 

Tongs, skidding 0.85 to 0.90 

Tool for turning hard rubber 1.05 

Tool for reaming inside of guns 1.05 to 1.12 

Tools, bricklayers' 0.90 to 0.95 

Tools, blacksmiths' • 0.60 to 0.7a 

Tools, moulders' 1.25 to 1.30 

Trowel • 0.40 to 0.45 

V. 
"Vises .0.90 to 0.95 

W. 

"Wedge, crucible 0.66 to 0.76 

"Wedge, stone ' 0.65 to 0.70 

Wedge for breaking frozen ore 0.60 to 0.70 

Wreath, crucible 0.66 to 0.75 

"Wrenches • • o.So to 0.90 

Wrenches, track 0.80 to 0.^)0 



INDEX 



i^vcommodate expansion 98 

Accomplishing fine results with self- 
hardening steel 27 

Accurate sectional casehardening. . . 139 

Acid, improved soldering 196 

Acme standard thread 222 

Actual pressure against tool 115 

Adoption of nickel steel for forg- 

ings 194 

Advantage derived from the use of 

gas as a fuel 53 

Advantage in the use of the tools. . 116 

Advantage of the method 14S 

Advantage of nickel steel for forg- 

ings 194 

Advise the use of cutters of small 

diameters 115 

Agitating contents of the bath. . . . 103 

Air hardening process 22 

Air tempering furnace 61 

Allowance desired in machining. . . . 188 

Allowing die to cool to a black 168 

Aluminium, lubricant for working. . 196 

Aluminium, solder for 197 

America, Crucible Steel Company of 34 
America, high-grade steel forgings 

in 176 

America, steel produced in by the 

crucible method 34 

American drill rod 14 

Angular cutters, grinding 232 

■Angular type of milling cutter .... 154 
Animus referred to by Admiral 

Evans 178 

Annealed die and tool steel 21 

Annealing ; . . . 38 

Annealing a small quality of steel. 43 

Annealing box for small parts 39 

Annealing chilled cast iron dies for 

drilling 43 

Annealing, furnace-packing the cast- 
ings 45 

Annealing, how to heat for 37 

Annealing iron castings 137 

Annealing in the charcoal fire 38 

Annealing low carbon steel bars. . . . 136 

Annealing ovens, heating the 47 

Annealing steel in the open Are. ... 43 
Annealing, straightening and finish- 
ing malleable castings 46 

Annealing, the effects of water. ... 40 

Annealing, the proper heat for 37 

Annealing, water 39 

Annealing white or silver iron 44 

Anti-friction alloy for journal boxes 197 
Apparatus used in the Taylor- 
White process 116 

Appearance of fractures of high- 
grade steel of various hardness 15 
Appreciate the advantages of steel 

forgings 179 

Approximate cutting speeds 27 

Approximate speeds for emery and 

polishing wheels 267 

Area of a hexigon 207 

Articles made from crucible cast 

steel 34 



Articles, hardening long thin 

Articles, tempering thin 

Art of forging with drop hammers. 

Art of steel treatment, how to in- 
struct in the 

Arts, Society of .......■••■■■••• • 

Arranged alphabetically, table oi 
tempers 

Asbestos washers ...........■••• 

Ascertaining the size of pulleys for 
given speeds • • • • 

A-5Sorted stock of metal for drop 
forgings .•••.•••■ 

Attachment for surface grinding. . 

Attainment of satisfactory results. 

Attention to the proper selection of 
steel in diemaking 

At bottom of thread, decimal con- 
stants for finding diameter 

Authority on the subject .... 

Average time required to machine 
fourteen sheaves ■ • • 

Average speeds for cutting drills. 

Axial type of milling cutter 



122 

187 

31 
19T 

125 
112 

195- 

191 
251 

18 

14 

210 
95 

114 
223 
154 



Babbiting .•.•■■••■..■ 

Baking enamels and vulcanizing rub- 
ber, table of suitable tempera- 
tures for casehardening, core 
ovens, drying kilns..... 127, 

Barrel heating machine for harden- 
ing and tempering balls, saw 
teeth, screws, etc 

Bath, the A' ' ■■ \: 

Bearing rings, hardening five-inch 
thrust 

Belts, horse power of 

Bench forge 

Bessemer steel, casehardening 

Bethlehem Steel Company 

Bevel edges, how to grind a slit- 
ting knife with 

Binds the grains together 

"Biting in" 

Blanking die, hardening a 

Blanking or cutting dies, harden- 
ing large 

Blazing off springs 

Blind to the temper colors of steel. 

Blistering, preventing it while heat- 



ing 



Blows water from the teeth 

Blue, to draw small steel parts 

to a • 

Board with stripes of paint and 

names of steels 

Boiled water 

Bone, charring the 

Bone, to char the 

Borax of commerce 

Both die and punch should be 

hard *. 

Brands of steel in freneral use.... 
Brands suitable for special classes 

of sheet-metal working 

Brass articles, lacquer for 

Break like glass 



196 



128- 



75 
13& 

131 
225 
65 
133 
113 

245 
265 
204 
166 

173 
161 
176 

142 
154 

161 

14 

96 

134 

134 

175 

174 

18 

14 
206 

157 



INDEX. 



277 



Breaking down point 113 

Bringing slowly to tlie required 

heat 143 

Buggy springs, to weld 194 

Bulky portion contracts away from 

the frailer portions 168 

Bunsen bu,rner 122 

Bureau of Steam Engineering. . . . 194 

Burning off not necessary 120 

Bushing, how to grind a hardened 

drilling jig : 243 

C 

Cake of soap, hardening in Ill 

■Calculations for determining speeds, 

27, 195 

Capable of withstanding wear.... 142 

Capacity of steel to cut 30 

Capital steel 18 

Carbon and air-hardening steels 

deteriorate, when 113 

Careful in heating and quenching. . 95 

Careless and unequal hammering. . 159 

Carnegie Steel Company 140 

Casehardening as it should be under- 
stood 142 

Casehardening, accurate sectional. 139 

Casehardening tools 129 

Casehardening cups and cones 198 

"Casehardening furnaces 85 

Casehardening mixture for iron. . . 141 

Casehardening, Moxon's method for. 141 

Casehardening, outfit for fine grain. 129 

Casehardening polished parts 142 

Casehardening paste 141 

Casehardening the ends of steel 

rails 140 

Casehardening, very deep 140 

■ Casehardening with kerosene 197 

Casehardening with cyanide of po- 
tassium 137 

Casting chain links , 48 

Castings, annealing furnaces, pack- 
ing the 45 

Castings, annealing iron 137 

Castings, annealing, straightening 

and finishing 46 

Cast iron, to harden 141 

Cast iron, to weld 183 

Cast steel, composition for welding. 183 

Cause of cracks in dies 167 

Causes of failure in using high- 
grade steel 15 

Causes the oil to come in contact 

with the teeth 146 

Chain, automatic heating machine 

for hardening 85 

Changes in the grain of the metal. 17 
Changes of length produced by heat. 32 
Characteristic appearance of frac- 
tures „ 15 

Charcoal 182 

Charcoal, annealing in 38 

Charcoal and bone 133- 

Charcoal, bone and 133 

Charcoal, casehardening cups and 

cones in 198 

Charcoal, flame, tempering in 122 

Charcoal for heating 100 

Charcoal made from charred 

leather 109 

Charcoal on the ton of the lead. . . 153 

Charcoal, the best 1 82 

Charcoal, to caseharden with 140 

Charring the bone 134 

Cheapest drop f orgings 192 

Cheaply made cyanide hardening 

pot 138 

Checking the temper Ill 

Chemical changes in clay 132 



Chemical compounds, receipts for. 124 

Chief of Ordnance, report of 108 

Chucking drills 198 

Circular annealing and hardening 

furnace 81 

Circular forming tools 203 

Circulation of a stream of water 

upward 162 

Circumstances determine the amount 

of shear to give 174 

Citric acid crystals 96 

Classified, milling cutters 154 

Clay, heat effects on 32 

Cleaning the work 135 

Clearance on tools for brass 204 

Closely controlling temperature. . . 116 

Coaly animal matter 142 

Coarse appearance of grain 23 

Coarse crystalline section 182 

Coating with tallow 43 

Coke suitable for hardening 100 

Collection of plain milling cutters. 144 
Collecting the segregation and pip- 
ing in the center 180 

Collet spring chucks, hardening... 112 
Colors from a light straw to a deep 

blue 136 

Colors of steel, table of tempers 

for tools 125 

Color on steel simply an indication. 

of heat 117 

Colors, table of temper 128 

Colors, tempering by 117 

Colt, Colonel Samuel 187 

Combination gas furnace for gen- 
eral machine shop work 54 

Combined oil and water method. . 146 
Composition called the texture. . . . 265 
Composition for cast steel, welding. 183 

Composition to toughen steel 184 

Compounds for welding steel 183 

Consumption of oil small 121 

Concave or straight, how to grind 
milling cutters and metal slit- 
ting saws 252 

Condition to be prized in steel. ... 17 
Conditions of the different sections. 16 
Confounding cracks with hardening. 167 
Consequent contraction and expan- 
sion 168 

Consequent sudden chill 112 

Construction and operation of barrel 

heating machine 77 

Constant reheating 99 

Contraction during quenching .... 99 

Contraction during cooling 180 

Contracting excessively in the cen- 
ter 1 72 

Cooling '. 136 

Cooling or quenching 100 

Coppering polished steel surfaces. 196 

Cooper-over surface nicely 196 

Core of tool left comparatively 

soft 149 

Corliss, George H 177 

Cost and endurance of forging 

dies 100 

Cost of good steel 13 

Cost of gas as compared with other 

fuel 53 

Costly accidents 24 

Coiinterbores. heating in lead 106 

Counterbores. clearance for 204 

Counterbores, internally lubricated 204 
Counterbores for cast iron and steel 204 

Counterboring 204 

Covering with clay 43 

Coyan, M. E 140 

Cracks in dies, their cause 167 

Crescent steel 18 

Crucible Steel Company of America. 34 



278 



INDEX. 



Crucible steel, table of articles 
made from, giving percentage 

of carbon they should contain. 269 

Crucible cast steel 176 

Crude and obsolete means for heat- 
ing and cooling 50 

Crude oil for rock drill tempering. 120 
Crystallizes from shock or vibra- 
tion in service 182 

Cubic contents in inches of a bar 

of iron 207 

Cubic foot of water, weight and 

capacity 105 

Cutter and tool grinder 227 

Cutter bits, hardening 159 

Cutter blades 104 

Cutter for milling teeth in spiral 

mills 155 

Cutter lubricant 225 

Cutter lubricant for steel or iron . 225 

Cutters to remain in oil until cold. 146 

Cutters, milling, their use 154 

Cutting and durability qualities of 

steel 30 

Cutting at high speeds Ill 

Cutting speeds, table of 138 

Cutting speeds for cast iron 27 

Cutting speeds for malleable iron. 28 

Cutting speeds for steel 30 

Cutting speeds for brass 30 

Cutting tools, speeds for 27 

Cutting tools, self -hardening 27 

Cutting tools, casehardening 130 

Cutting thin stock 174 

Cutting edges of twist drills 198 

Cutlasses, tempering swords and. . 123 

Cyanide hardening furnaces 95 

Cyanide soap 206 

Cylindrical casehardening furnace. 85 

D 

Day, Mr. Charles 113 

Dead cold 157 

Decarbonization 99 

Decarbonized steel surfaces 24 

Decarbonizes, when steel 52 

Decimal equivalents of milli- 
meters 208 

Decimal equivalents of fractional 

parts of inch 209 

Deep blue, colors from a light 

straw to a 136 

Deep casehardening, very 140 

Deep recesses, work with 95 

Defects running through center of 

bars 23 

Defining the terms 36 

Definite degree of elasticity, hard- 
ening steel to 31 

Degree to which the article ex- 
pands 99 

Degrees of softness down to a blue 

tinged with green 117 

Degrees of softness below that de- 
noted by thermometer 117 

Delicate pieces, dipping 131 

Desirable condition in drop dies.... 164 

Desirable tendency 158 

Determining the correct hardening 

process 15 

Dpterioration due to heating 21 

Device for hardening bushings, shell 

reamers, etc Ill 

Diamond tool holder 253 

■nie-blank, reannealing 170 

Die steel 14 

Die steel, hardening poor 172 

Dies cracking while in the forge. . . 168 
Dies, drop, hardening and temper- 
ing 163 



Dies from forgings of wrought iron 

and steel 162: 

Dies hardening fluids for 172 

Dies hardening and tempering large 

cutting US- 
Dies spoiled through carelessness 

and inexperience 167 

Dies used for special drop forgings. 187 

Dies for regular shaped blanks .... 12i> 
Difference between hard steel and 

tough steel 93 

Diffei-ent methods of packing cast- 
ings in pots 4& 

Different quenching baths, their ef- 
fects on steel 96- 

DiflBculties encountered in introduc- 
ing high-grade steel 181 

Diminishing width of cutting face. 267 
Dipping a long half-round reamer. . 105- 
Dipping at an angle of about 20 de- 
degrees 105- 

Dipping fluted reamers when hard- 
ening 157 

Dipping half-round or "gun" ream- 
ers when hardening 105- 

Dipping in a strong solution of salt 

and water 96 

Dipping on a rising heat 1&^ 

Dipping small tools when harden- 
ing 156- 

Dipping vertically 101 to 10ft- 

Disagreeable possibility eliminatBd. 16t> 
Discarding the color method of tem- 
pering IID' 

Distortion takes place, when 97 

Distortion through uneven heating. 9T 
Direct a stream of water onto the 

face of the die 164 

Directions for annealing with gran- 
ulated raw bone 136- 

Directions for setting up drop ham- 
mers 192 

Double face mill 146- 

Doubtful steel, to anneal 4S 

Drawbacks to the commercial use 

of nickel steel 194r 

Drawbacks to the use of aluminum. 197 
Drawbridge disc and similar work, 

hardening 131 

Drawing and forming dies, chilled 

iron 43^ 

Drawing to a temper of 400 de- 
grees 122- 

Drilling a large hole in a spindle. . 198'- 
Drilling, annealing cast iron dies 

for 43 

Drilling hard steel, lubricant for. 196- 
Drilling or turning aluminum, lubri- 
cant for 196 

Drill entered through a bushing. . . 19ft- 

Drill with one cutting edge 19ft 

Drills for brass 198- 

Drills for standard pipe taps, sizes 

of 218^ 

Drop dies, hardening and tempering. 163 

Drop forged bracket 192: 

Drop forged crank shafts 188 

Drop forged wrenches 18ft 

Drop forged gear blank 191 

Drop forging plant 186- 

Drop hammers, forging 185 

Drop hammers, directions for set- 
ting up forging 192; 

K 

Kach brand in separate rack 14 

FJccentric ring, hardening an 98 

Economical use of gas as a fuel.. 53 
Economy in purchasing cheap tool 

steel, no H* 



INDEX. 



2/9 



Economy in steel, how to obtain. .. 13 
Economy in testing steel before us- 
ing 24 

Effects of heat on steel 97 

Efficiency and judgment 95 

Efforts of the sovernment to obtain 

steel suitable for large guns. . 177 

Elastic limit of nickel steel 194 

Eliminating tendency to warp.... 112 
Eliminating the possibility of warp- 
ing 166 

Emery wheels, their use 265 

Empty crucible after using 107 

English blue 161 

English works duplicated 179 

Entering the die edgeways Ill 

Entirely eliminated, segregation and 

piping 180 

Equal sectional area 98 

Equivalent measures, table of Eng- 
lish or American (U. S.) . . . . 211 
Establishments devoted exclusively 
to the manufacturing of drop 

forgings 191 

Establishment where thousands of 

dies are made every year 167 

Evans, Admiral Robley D 178 

Even grain and velvety appearance. 17 
Even spacing instead of staggered. 199 

Even temper 165 

Expansion of different metals.... 341 
Exact knowledge in the matter... 113 
Exact degree of temper determined 

by experiment 118 

Expansion of gases 31 

Expansion of wrought iron for each 

degree Fahrenheit 38 

Expansion uneaual 32 

Expansion reamers 201 

Expert in the art 95 

Experience in working and using 

the different brands 13 

Experience, skill and sound judg- 
ment 95, 

Experience with different grades of 

steel 13 

Experience with crude oil 120 

Experimental treatment 15 

Exposing heated steel to a current 

of air 20 

Extensive experiments with various 

metals 194 

Extensive use to which drop forg- 

gings have been put 188 

Extra cost of annealed steel 14 

Extra heavy work, hardening 131 

F 

Face milling large castings, steel 

for 27 

Facing 204 

Features, prominent 227 

Ferris wheel shaft 181 

Figuring cost of tools 188 

Figuring the surface speeds of emery 

wheels and milling cutters. . . 207 

Files, to temper old 160 

Finding diameter of driven 195 

Finding number of revolutions of 

driver 195' 

Finding the area of cylinder 206 

Finding the capacity of a cylinder 

in gallons 205 

Pine grain, casehardening for.... 12^ 

Fine grain, compact 129 

Finest metal pattern work 49' 

Finishing cold, hammering hard 

and 18 

Finishing without grinding or clean- 
ing 198 



Fire and heat, the hardening 99 

Fire must be free from gas 136 

Fire of small soft coal 100 

First advisory board for rebuild- 
ing navy 178 

First annealing does not eliminate 

the liability of cracking 168 

Fixed general rules 18 

Flange-ended tubes, clamping be- 
tween 156 

"Floating" reamer 201 

Fluids for dies, hardening 172 

Fluted cuts too shallow 199 

Fluted reamers, when hardening. . 157 
Flux, a good welding, for steel... 175 

Flux, French welding 185 

Flux, for soldering and welding... 187 

Force contents into hole 154 

Formed butt mill 147 

Forge, bench 65 

Forged, how hollow shafts are .... 179 
Forged, steel for tools which re- 
quire to be 176 

Forging, drop 187 

Forging, drop hammers, directions 

for setting up 192 

Forgings from steel of high car- 
bon 191 

Forgings for cutting dies 18 

Forgings, government use of nickel 

steel for 194 

Forgings in America, high-grade. . 176 

Forgings, steel die 14 

Forging, heating steel for 18, 176 

Forging plant, larger and superior 

to any in the world 179 

Forging to shape 18 

Formed type milling cutter 155 

Formed face mill 147 

Formed cutters with steps 203 

Formulas for sharp V thread. 
United States standard thread, 
Whitworth standard thread . . . 221 

Frequent renewal by forging 99 

From cast iron and steel, to make 

edged tools 183 

From steel, to remove scale 197 

From 32 degs. F. to 212 degs. F., 

table of expansion 34 

Furnace, air tempering 61 

Furnace, circular annealing and 

hardening 80 

Furnace, cylindrical casehardening. 81 

Furnace, lead hardening 88 

Furnaces, casehardening 85 

Furnaces, cyanide hardening 91 

Furnaces, muffle 93 

Furnaces, oil tempering 81 



G 



Gages, hardening ring 156 

Gaging the heat by thermometer. . 119 

"Gall" and "nerve" 95 

Gang of straight face milling cut- 
ters 146 

Gang of cutters for machining a 

wide formed surface 147 

Gang punch, hardening and temper- 
ing a split' 173 

Gas blast forges, their use 54 

Gas consumption 53 

Gasi flame, tempering in 158 

Gas forge for knife and shear 

blades 64 

Gas forge for small work 59 

Gear cutter grinding 238 

General directions 252 

General directions and rules for the 

hardening of steel 97 



28o 



INDEX. 



General matter relative to malleable 

iron machine parts 48 

General smith work, hardening mix- 
ture for 160 

Generation of steam when harden- 
ing 97 

Getting rid of the center of a hol- 
low forging 179 

Glue to resist moisture .^. . 206 

Good and uniform temper '. iQl 

Good weld between parts, neces- 
sary to have 162 

Good welding flux for steel 175 

Good steel for good tools 38 

Good tools, good steel for 38 

Government blue 161 

Government use of nickel steel for 

forgings I94 

Grade and texture of the wheel. . . . 265 

Grade of steel to use for dies 14 

Gravers, to temper 160 

Grain rendered coarse and brittle. 105 

Granulated charcoal 130 

Granulated raw bone, directions for 

annealing with 136 

Granulated raw bone, obtaining 

colors with 136 

Granulated raw bone, how to case- 
harden, color and anneal with. 130 

Graphite crucible 106 

Great flexibility of steel 175 

Great hardness, testing for 24 

Great ordnance works of the Bethle- 
hem Steel Company 177 

Greatest uniformity and maximum 

results 115 

Green coal 100 

Grinder, a small cutter 254 

Grinder, Cincinnati universal cutter 

and tool 227 

Grinding angular cutters 232 

Grinding, attachment for surface. . 251 

Grinding a bevel cutter 259 

Grinding a die blank to the re- 
quired angle 248 

Grinding a die in its bolster 264 

Grinding a formed tool on its face. 248 

Grinding a gang of mills 263 

Grinding a gage to a given dimen- 
sion 250 

Grinding a hardened drilling jig 

bushing 243 

Grinding a hand reamer 241 

Grinding a shear plate 247 

Grinding a straight edge 246 

Grinding a spiral mill 231 

Grinding a spiral tooth cutter.... 259 
Grinding a slitting knife with bev- 
eled edges 245 

Grinding a snap gage 265 

Grinding a taper spindle 244 

Grinding a taper reamer 241 

Grinding a tap held in reamer cen- 
ters 260 

Grinding a taper reamer with 

straight backed off edges 260 

Grinding a taper reamer with shear I 

cutting edges 261 

Grinding a worm wheel hob 241 

Grinding a twenty-four inch cold 

saw 237 

Grinding an inserted tooth mill. . 263 
Grinding broad surfaces, wheels 

suitable for 266 

Grinding cutters of small diameters 

and sharp angles 231 

Grinding, cutter and tool 227 

Grinding formed cutters 240 

Grinding, general dii-ections for. . . . 252 

Grinding gear cutters 238 

Grinding, internal 246 



Grinding lathe tools, wheels suit- 
able for 266 

Grinding milling cutters and metal 

slitting saws, large 236 

Grinding mil'ing cutters or saws 

straight or concave 252 

Grinding milling machine cutters, 

wheels suitable for 266 

Grinding soft metals, wheels suit- 
able for 266 

Grinding shell counterbores 236 

Grinding side milling cutters with 

a large wheel 230 

Grinding, shapes and sizes of emery 

wheels for tool 228 

Grinding side milling cutters 233 

Grinding twist drills 202 

Grinding reamer blades convex. . . . 199 

Grinding the bevel corner on a 

double end butt mill 263 

Grinding the face of a double end 

butt mill 262 

Grinding the face of a small end 

mill 261 

Grinding the sides of an end mill. 262 

Grinding the face of a straddle mill. 258 

Grinding the reverse side of a face 

mill 258 

Grinding the sides of a face or 

straddle mill 257 

Grinding, the wheels suitable for 

internal 268 

Grinding, the wheels suitable for 

rough 266 

Ground in special machines 174 

Ground work, samples of 229 

H 

Hammer all sides alike 159 

Hammer directly over spot rest- 
ing on anvil 123 

Hammering and rolling steel billets 179 
Hard or soft punches and dies... 163 

Hard or soft wheels 265 

Hard steel, lubricant for drilling . . 196 
Hard steel, tempering flat drills 

for drilling 160 

Hard stock, tempering flat drills 

for 160 

Harden in bath with teeth up ... . 154 
Hardened machine steel parts, to 

produce fine ^rain 139 

Hardener will be blamed 175 

Hardening and tempering spring 

collet spring chucks 112 

Hardening and tempering drop dies. 163 
Hardening and tempering large "cut- 
ting" or "blanking" dies .- 173 

Hardening and tempering mill picks. 121 
Hardening and tempering milling 

cutters in water and oil 147 

Hardening and tempering, proper 

equipment for 52 

Hardening and tempering small 

taps, knives, springs, etc 160 

Hardening and tempering split 

gang punches 173 

Hardening and tempering springs. 161 
Hardening and tempering round 

thread dies Ill 

Hardening and tempering, special 

instructions for 110 

Hardening around a hole 156 

Hardening at different tempera- 
tures Ill 

Hardening a blanking die 166 

Hardening cutting bits 159 

Hardening drawbridge disc and sim- 
ilar work 131 

Hardening extra heavy work 131 



INDEX. 



281 



Hardening equally all through 99 

Hardening files 108 to 160 

Hardening five-inch thrust bearing 

rings 131 

Hardening fluids for dies 172 

Hardening, heating for 18 

Hardening, heating in hot lead 

for 106 

Hardening hollow mills 153 

Hardening in clear oil 173 

Hardening in solutions 106 

Hardening, judgment and careful- 
ness in 95 

Hardening large milling cutters. .. 143 

Hardening large pieces 95 

Hardening large dies 162 

Hardening long taper reamers, 

103 to 109 

Hardening metal saws 15'.) 

Hardening milling cutters in the 

open fire 143 

Hardening mixtures for general 

smith work 160 

Hardening of inexpensive cutting 

tools 118 

Hardening poor die steel 172 

Hardening, (juenching for 100 

Hardening ring gages 156 

Hardening small parts and long 

thin parts 104 

Hardening small saws 159 

Hardening successful 38 

Hardening the walls of a round 

die 169 

Hardening steel by petroleum 197 

Hardening thick round dies 172 

Hardening very small punches.... 171 
Hardening very thin tools so as to 

prevent warping 158 

Hardening V shaped milling cut- 
ters 152 

Hardening shell reamers, bushings, 

hobSj etc Ill 

Hardening, warping of punches in. . 171 

Hardening, warping of tools in 109 

Hastings, B 120 

Heat distributed equally 119 

Heat affects center equally with 

outside 180 

Heat effects on copper and bronze. 119 

Heat effects on clay 32 

Heat, first effect of 31 

Heat, second effect of 34 

Heat, the 135 

Heat, the hardening fire and the . . 99 

Heating 50 

Heating according to shape 98 

Heating and tempering, effects of 

slow 97 

Heating, distortion through uneven. 97 

Heating for forging 18 

Heating for hardening 18 

Heating furnace, the location of the 52 

Heating in the open fire 99 

Heating in hot lead for hardening. 106 
Heating machine for hardening the 

edges of mover blades 69 

Heating machine for hardening 

cones and shells 70 

Heating machine for small parts. . 73 
Heating machine for tempering and 

coloring steel 78 

Heating machine with revolving 

trays 71 

Heating steel for forging 18 

Heating slowly to a spring tem- 
per 158 

Heating steel, temperature tell-tales 

for 159 

Heating the annealing ovens 47 

Heating the steel too quickly 99 



Heating the die 168 

Heating unequally 159 

Heats, welding 175 

Heavy work, hardening extra 131 

Heavy oil 108 

Heavy springs, hardening 120 

Highest carbon steel, not desirable 

to use 103 

High-carbon steels, the treatment 

of 15 

High-grade steel forglngs in Amer- 
ica 176 

High-grade steel in the smith's fire. 160 
Hinged plates for hardening saws. 108 
History of the change from iron 
forglngs to high-grade steel 

forglngs in America 177 

Hob, how to grind a wormwheel 

hob 241 

Hobs or master taps 102 

Hobson's steel 18 

Hollow forglngs, oil-tempered and 

annealed 180 

Hollow ingot 180 

Hollow mills, how to temper .... 153 

Hollow mills, hardening 153 

Hot water, hardening in 117 

Hot water, tempering springs in. . 120 

Horse power of belts 225 

Howe-Brown steel 18 

How to casehardeuj color and an- 
neal with granulated raw bone 130 
How to caseharden malleable iron. 133 
How to caseharden rolls, leaving 

tenons soft for riveting 132 

How to dump the work 135 

How to grind a die blank to the 

required angle 248 

How to grind milling cutters and 
metal slitting saws straight or 

concave 252 

How to grind a hardened drilling 

jig bushing 243 

How to grind a slitting knife with 

bevel edges 245 

How to grind a wormwheel hob. . . 241 

How to grind a taper spindle 244 

How to harden a long punch so as 

to prevent warping 165 

How to grind a large ring die.... 164 

How to heat for annealing 37 

How to restore overheated steel . . . 184 
How to thoroughly anneal high- 
grade tool steel parts 37 

How to use old bone 133 

How hollow shafts are forged 179 

Hubbard's granulated raw bone . . . 130 

I 

Illustrations showing various work 
performed on a different type 
of universal cutter and tool 

grinder 257 

Imperfect preceding operations .... 167 
Importance of having a good foun- 
dation for drop 192 

Impossible for the operator to be- 
come skilled in the art 119 

Improper means for grinding 168 

Improved soldering and tinning 

acid 19S 

Improvements in the manufactur- 
ing and forging of crucible 

cast steel 176 

Improving poor steel 184 

Inception of the art 187 

Increasing the size of the reamer 

when worn 195 

Individual testing by the toolmak- 

ers 24 



282 



INDEX. 



Information upon air-hardening 

steels 113 

Information of value to practical 

men 31 

Injurious effects of overheating. ... IS 

Injuring the quality of the metal. . 175 

Inserted type of milling cutters .... 198 

Insure against warping 1.58 

Interesting data 114 

Internal anvil 180 

Internal grinding 24(j 

Internal strains, their cause 175 

In America, high-grade steel forg- 

ings 176/ 

In crude oil, tempering rock drills. 120 
In exr)ansion and contraction, 

amount of force exerted 33 

In hardening, straightening long 

tools VFhich have warped 157 

In hardening, the use of clay 110 

In hardening steel, temperature 

tell-tales for use 134, 159 

In U. S. table of different stan- 
dards for wire gage used 219 

In welding, substitute for borax. . 187 

Iron, a casehardening mixture for. . 141 
Iron and steel sheets, table of 

weights of 214 

Iron and steel, welding power for. . 183 

Iron castings, to anneal 137 

Iron, silver or white, annealing. . . 44 

Irregular pieces, heating 107 

T 

Jessop's steel 18 

Joshua Rose. M.E 98 

Journal of the Franklin Institute. 113 
Journal of the United States Ar- 
tillery 206 

Judgment and carefulness in hard- 
ening 95 

Judgment, experience and percep- 
tion in the working of steel . . 31 

K 

Kerosene, casehardening witn 197 

Kinds of steel produced in Amer- 
ica by the crucible and open 

hearth process 34 

Knives, tempering wood-planer. . . . 122 
Knowledge and skill employed in 

working steel 95 

Labitte, M. 1 I'gB 

Laboratory experiments 182 

Lacquer for brass articles 206 

Lacquer for silver 206 

Large milling cutter, hardening... 143 
Large power units used in electric 

generating stations 176 

Large ring dies, how to harden... 164 

Large spiral fluted "hob" tap 19 

Large tank indispensable 162 

Large tank provided with perfor- 
ated tray 167 

Latent prejudice against hollow 

forgings ISl 

Laying out work 196 

Lead hardening furnace SS 

Leaving one of the dies soft T^"' 

Length, measure of 211 

Liability to crack 101 

Liability to fracture 15 

Lime, to clean tank with 20 

Lineal foot, table of pounds per. . . 215 

Link Belt Encineering Company.. T13 

Lodge, Mr. William ". . . 199 



Long delicate reamers 110 

Long, flat or round objects, harden- 
ing 105- 

Long knives sure to warp 123 

Long taper die-taps 103 

Loose dirt, to clean in 121 

Low carbon steel bars, to anneal. . 136 
Lowered, modified, tempered, less- 
ened 117 

Lubricant for cutting 225 

Lubricant for cutting steel or iron. 225 

Lubricant for drilling hard steel. . 196 

Lubricant for water cuts 196 

Lubricant for working aluminum.. 196- 

M 

Machine, attacTiOients which are 

used on the 256 

Machine blacksmithing ISQ^ 

Machine, construction and operation 

of barrel heating 77 

Machine parts, general matter rela- 
tive to malleable iron 48- 

Machine parts, the annealing of 
malleable castings and the man- 
ufacture of malleable iron. . . . 44 

Machine reaming 201 

Machine screw taps, table of tap 

drills for 218 

Machine steel casehardened tools. . 129' 
Machines, processes and tools used 

in the art 187 

Machinery steel cutting tools 129' 

Making a tap or reamer cut larger 

than itself 195 

Making welding heats, coke for. . . . 100 

Malleable department 4ft 

Malleable iron, how to caseharden . . 133 

Manipulated in the fire 97 

Marking each separate brand 14 

Master Mechanics' and Master Car 

Builders' Association 177 

Material possessing a very high 

elastic limit 181 

Maximum efficiency 113, 116- 

Measure of length 211 

Measure of surface 21 1 

Measure of volume and capacity. . . 211 

Measui-e of weight 211 

Measuring expansion and contrac- 
tion 32 

Medimum cuts and feeds and coarse 

thread cutting 27 

Melting points, table of 124 

Melting pots 90- 

Metal is improving by forging 191 

Metal pattern shop of malleable de- 
partment •. 49 

Metal saws, to harden 108 

Metal slitting saws 154 

Metal to expand in cooling 206 

Method, advantages of the 147 

Metric and U. S. measures 211 

Messrs. Taylor and White . 113 

Middle softer than the outside .... 99 

Mild steel chins and borax 16.3 

Min picks, bath for hardening 121 

Mill picks, hardening and tempering 121 
Mill picks, temnering of cast steel ] 121 

Mill picks, to teraner 121 

Mill should be inverted . 153 

Millimeters and fractions of milli- 
meters, decimal enuivalents 20S- 

Millimeters of, table 20R 

Milling cutters, hardening V shaned 152 
Milling wrought iron or steel, lubri- 
cant for 204 

Mining and Scientific Press..!!! ! 120 

Mistakes and accidents ! 24 

Miscellaneous 211 



INDEX. 



283 



Mixture composed of equal parts of 

charred leather and charcoal . . ISO 

Moderate cost, testing at a 24 

Moisture in crucible 107 

Molecules assume the most stable 

position liy 

Molecule motion 32 

More steam than hole can contain. . Ia4 

Most generally used bath 96 

Most satisfactory results 119 

Moving laterally when quenching. . 102 
Mower blades, heating machine for 

hardening the edges of 69 

Moson's method of casehardening. . 141 

Mr. Charles Day 113 

Mr. F. A. Pratt 41 

Mr. William Lodge 199 

Mr. Robert Leith 48 

Much depands on even heating.... 143 

Muffle furnaces 93 

Multiple or inserted cutter heads. . 204 

Muffle regular sizes of 93 

"Mushet" steel 115 

Museum of Arts and Trades in 

Paris 33 

S 

Necessary dies to produce special 

drop forgings 188 

Necessary precautions 109 

'Nerve," "gall" and 95 

Nicely coppered surface 196 

Nickel steel forgings, government 

use of 194 

No nossibilitv of overdrawing 119 

No provision made for water cool- 
ing 168 

Not necessary to brighten after the 

operation 119 

Not indicative of a uniform degree 

of hardness 118 

Number of revolutions a drill should 

run 202 



O 

Object of Messrs. Taylor and White 113 
Obtaining colors with granulated 

raw bone 134 

Of parts of an inch, table decimal 

equivalents 209 

Of solids, table of melting points. . 124 
O. H. and Bessemer machine steel 42 

Oil bath 96 

Oil cools without cracking 123 

Oil commencing to smoke a suffi- 
cient indication 151 

Oil serves as an indicator of desired 

temper 151 

Oil tempering furnaces 81 

Oil, tempering in 117 

Old bone, how to use 133 

Old files, to temper 160 

Old Point Comfort 178 

One of the largest producers of 

steel in the world 35 

Only carbonized portions will 

harden 132 

Open and crystallized fracture.... 17 
Open fire, annealing steel in the ... 43 

Open fire and color test 119 

Open fire, hardening milling cutters 

in the 143 

Operation of the process 116 

Operator not familiar with nature 

of the steel 167 

Ordering steel for dies 14 

Ordinary method for tempering mill- 
ing cutters 147 



Ordinary twist drill with female 

center 199 

Ordinary way of getting rid of the 

center 179 

Outfit for fine grain casehardening. 129 
Output of malleable department... 4{i 

Outside very hard 151 

Overheated steel, to restore 184 

Overheating when forging lH 



Pack in good animal carbon 142 

Packing and heating the work.... 129 
Packing in iron box in powdered 

charcoal 103- 

Packing the work 14S 

Pameacha raw bone 13ii 

Parts produced by drop forging. . . . 187 
Parts subject to pressure, wear or 

concussion 139 

Parts with thin sides or edges.... 97 

Paste, casehardening 141 

Perforated iron pan 159 

Persistent exposure of fallacies .... 182 
Phosphorus makes steel brittle.... 130 
Pieces coming out free from cracks. 95 
Pieces with holes running part way 

through them 154 

Piercing punches, hardening 104 

Placing the die in an inclined posi- 
tion 164 

Plain or formed milling cutters .... 14a 

Plain water 9& 

Planer knife, tempering wood 122 

Playing card dies 173 

Plunging overheated steel into 

water 95 

Plunging into petroleum 19S 

Pointer 184 

Points to be remembered 52 

Polished parts, casehardening 141 

Polished steel surfaces, coppering 19& 

Polishing for tempering 147 

Poor material cannot be used 191 

Porter, Mr. H. F. J 90 

Potassium. casehardening with 

cyanide of 137 

Pots, different methods of packing 

castings in 45 

Pots, melting 90 

Powdered charcoal and coke 104 

Powdered cyanide 107 

Power of burnt bones 142 

Practical speeds at which tools can 

be run 115 

Practice of the best shops 31 

Practice, reamer 199 

Pratt & Whitney 41 

Prejudice against steel generally. . 178 

Preparation of the work 44 

Press tools, use of machinery steel 

for 129 

Press tools, the use of machine 

steel for 129 

Prevent blowing when pouring in 

damp boxes 196 

Prevent carbonization of stock.... 132 

Prevent cracking 157 

Prevent warping, hardening so as 

to 158 

Prevent warping, hardening a long 

punch so as to 165 

Preventing unequal expansion 107 

Process requires a good quality of 

steel 19T 

Process very much simplified 117 

Process which does not reduce the 

hardness of steel 117 

Processes and conditions in con- 
nection with each other 31 



284 



INDEX. 



Processes, kind of steel produced in 
America by tlie crucible and 

open heartb 34 

Processes which tend to reduce the 

hardness of steel 117 

Products of the drop forging indus- 
try 187 

Prof. E. Wilson 197 

Prominent features 227 

Proper equipment for steel work- 
ing 52 

Proper equipment for hardening 

and tempering 52 

Proper facilities for steel treat- 
ment 50 

Proper heat for plunging the steel. 121 

Proportion of carbon 17 

Proportion of soft core 158 

Protecting exposed parts 98 

Protecting teeth from decarboniza- 

tion 109 

Prussiate about to decompose and 

dissipate 142 

Pulverized charcoal 133 

Pumping oil to annealing ovens. ... 47 
Tuuch or die blank, re-annealing a . 170 
Punch, tempering a combination 

cutting and drawing 173 

Punches and dies, soft or hard. . . . 163 
Punches for perforating heavy stock 170 

Punches, tempering small 173 

Punching or shearing heavy metals 163 
Putting the steel in the bath, man- 
ner of 95 



ft 

■Quenching bath 96 

Quenching for hardening 100 

Quenching in salt water 161 

Quenching in a large tank of water 178 

Quick methods for softening steel . . 43 

Quoted reports of tests. . ., 113 



R 

Hadial type of milling cutter 154 

"Railway Review" ■ 140 

Rails, cas€ hardening the ends ot 

steel 1'*'-' 

Rake of forming tools 204 

Rapid cooling of the forging 14 

Rapid extraction heat lOi 

Rapid method of annealing special 

steel l-*-" 

Rare for an oil-tempered drill to 

break 1-^ 

Raw linseed oil ^o 

Raw potato, sticking in a lo» 

Raw weld joint If 

Real knowledge 93 

Tleamer. babbitt 201 

Reamer, evenly spaced will chatter. 199 

Reamer, exnansion 201 

Reamer, "floating" 201 

Reamer for iron 201 

Reamer for screw machine 202 

Reamer for brass 200 

Tf °amer for steel 201 

Reamer, formed or curving 20- 

Reamer, hand '^^') 

Reamer, "home made" ''99 

Reamer, large taper 20„ 

Reamer, Rose -CJ- 

Rpamer, speed for 20- 

Reamer, square -91 

Reamer, taper, with three blades. . 199 

Reamer, too much clearance on ... . 200 
Reamer, when worn, to increase 

the size of 195 



Reamers and reaming 200 

Reaming a long straight hole 201 

Reamers, hardening taper 109 

Reamers, hardening long taper. . . . 109 

Reaming, reamers and 200 

Reannealing a punch, or a die 

blank 170 

Reannealing tap blanks 42 

Regular sizes of muffle 93 

Relation which the elastic limit 

bears to the tensile strength. . 194 

Red hot lead, heating in 106 

Reduction of strength 98 

Removing large amounts of stock.. 117 
Removing technical objections to 

the color test 117 

Removing rust from polished steel 

or iron 206 

Responsibility for bad work in 

hardening 159 

Responsible for bad work 95 

Results in steel when hardened at 

a given temperature 18 

Required angle, how to grind a die 

blank to the -. . 248 

Return to its elastic state 157 

Ring gages, hardening 156 

Riveting, how to caseharden, rolls 

leaving tenons soft for 132 

Robert Leith, Mr 48 

Rock drills, tempering 120 

Rogers, Admiral John 178 

Rogers & Hubbard Company 130 

Rough-down blanks for long tools. . 103 

Rough test on cast iron 114 

Round dies, hardening thick 172 

Round dies, hardening the walls of. 169 
Round thread dies, hardening and 

tempering Ill 

Rose, M. E.. Joshua 98 

Rosin on the blacksmith's forge. . . 184 

Rules for calculating speed.... 27, 195 

Rust joints, cement 200" 



S 

Salt, heating in melted 96 

Sal-soda and borax in water 106 

Sanderson's steel 18 

Sand bath, '^empering in the 117 

Saving of 46 per cent 114 

Schneider & Co., of Le Creusot, 

France 179 

Scientific American Supplement... 98 
Screw and dowel holes plugged 

with fire clay 166 

Screw head slotting saws 159 

Screw threads, U. S. S -220 

Securing the best results from steel 23 

Secretary of the Navy 178 

Sectional casehardening. accurate. . 139 
Sections and shapes of file steel, 16, IT 

Segregation and piping 180 

Selection and identification of steel 13 
Selection of brands and grades of 

steel 1"^ 

Selection of steel of uniform qual- 
ity 1^ 

Self-hardening brands IS 

Self-hardening steel cutting tools.. 27 
Self-hnrdening steels, treatment of 

hia-h-speed 20 

Servicable slack tub 1-1 

Set of hardened and tempered turn- 
ing tools 22 

Set of self-hardening steel cutting 

tools 25 

Setting the grain of steel finer. . . . 159 
Setting the fine grain permanently 180 
Severe usage in the nature of alter- 

natinsr stresses 181 



INDEX. 



285 



Shear blades, gas forge for knife 

and 64 

Shell end mills 147 

Shells, heating machine for temper- 
ing and coloring 70 

Shells, heating machines for hard- 
ening, cones and 70 

Shrinkage in soft steel 42 

Skill, experience and judgment in 

hardening 118 

Soliciting orders tor hollow forg- 

ings 181 

Slowly cooling the inside 150 

Slower the temper is drawn the 

tougher the steel 119 

Small articles of even thickness. . . 107 
Small and medium size springs... 120 

Small fagots of wrought iron 179 

Small flat springs 161 

Small iron parts, to caseharden. . . . 141 

Small iron parts 141 

Small parts, annealing box for.... 39 

Small punches, steel for 14 

Small punches for thin stock 166 

Small punches, tempering 171 

Small saws, hardening 108 

Small spiral springs 161 

Small taps, hobs, etc., how to tem- 
per 160 

Small work, gas forge for 59 

Smallest sectional area 98 

Smoke coming from all parts of the 

steel 151 

Soap or oil in water 20 

Society of Arts 197 

Soft machine steel almost worth- 
less 42 

Soft spots after hardening 104 

Soft spots in dies after hardening. . 162 
Softening steel, quick methods for.. 43 

Solder for aluminum 197 

Soldering 205 

Solid core of Are brick 180 

Solids, melting points of 125 

Solution to protect steel from fire. . 106 
Solution, % opera oil, % neat's 

foot oil^ one ounce rosin 120 

Solutions are used to some extent.. 143 

Solutions, hardening in 106 

Solutions, tempering 124 

Source of annoyance often over- 
looked ] 54 

Spacing entirely too close 199 

Special brands of steel are pro- 
ducible 118 

Special drop forgings 190 

Special end mill 147 

Special forming cutter ! 146 

Special instructions 110 

Special instructions for hardening 

and tempering 110 

Special methods, tempering by.... 117 

Special milling cutter 147 

Speeds for cutting tools 27 

Soerm oil gg 

Spiral springs, tempering small.!!! 120 

Spoiling steel by overheating 41 

Spring chucks, hardening and tem- 
pering collet 112 

Spring temper, heating slowly to a 158 

Springs, to weld buggy 184 

Spring threading die 96 

Springs, blazing off ! ! ' " 120 

Springs, bluing" !!!!!!! 161 

Special hardening and tempering! ! 161 
Square and hexagon steel, table of 

weights and areas of round and 212 

Stalwart chamoion of steel 178 

Square reamer ! ' ' ' oqi 

Standard brands of self-hardening 

steel, experiments with 115 



Standard pipe taps, table of sizes 

of drills for 21S 

Standards for wire gage in the 

United States 21t> 

Standard screw threads, table of , 

United States 220^ 

Standard thread formulas for sharp 
V thread, United States stand- 
ard Whitworth thread 221 

Standard twist drill grinding gage . 20ii 

Stay-bolt taps lOS 

Steam can escape and water enter. 154 
Steel, annealing a small quantity of 4a 

Steel annealed die and tool 21 

Steel bars, annealing low carbon. . 136 

Steel, a good welding flux for 175 

Steel, cutting and durability qual- 
ities of 30 

Steel, composition to toughen 184 

Steel, compound for welding 183- 

Steel cutting rings welded to 

wrought iron plate 174 

Steel, different quenching baths, 

their effect on 9ft 

Steel die forgings 14 

Steel forgings intelligently pro- 
duced 179- 

Steel for small reamers, taps, small 

punches, etc 14 

Steel for different purposes 14 

Steel for small punches 14 

Steel for tools which require to be 

forged 176 

Steel, general directions and rules 

for the hardening of 97 

Steel, how to restore overheated. . . 184 

Steel in its softened condition 36 

Steel, .iudgment, experience and per- 
ception in the working of ... . 31 

Steel of special composition 115 

Steel of a brand which experience 

has taught to be uniform. . . . 118 
Steel of different carbon percentage 118 
Steel parts, how to thoroughly an- 
neal high-grade tool 37 

Steel rails, casehardening ends of. . 140 
Steel, selection and idenfiflcation of 13 

Steel, the grain of 23 

Steel, the heating and cooling of . . . 50' 
Steel, treatment of air-hardening. 21 
Steel, treatment of annealed die and 

tool 21 

Steel unevenly heated 168 

Steel worked at a low red heat. . . . 159' 
Steel, to distinsruish wrought iron 

and cast iron from 19T 

Steel, to blue without heating 197 

Steel, to remove scale from 206 

Sticking, mixture to nrevent lead 

from 108 

Straight cvlindrical pieces 102 

Straightening between lathe centers 157 
Straightening hardened pieces that 

have warped 157 

Straightening long tools that have 

warped in hardening 121 

Straightening on anvil with ham- 
mer i.s;? 

Straightening on a block of wood. . ].'^7 

Straierhtening while cold lO.*^ 

Straightening while hot 103 

Strain occasioned bv rauid cooling. . 180 

Strains in manufactni-e ". . . 96 

Stream of water strikins the work 95 

Strength of hollow forgings 180 

Stretching the chains . T. . T 79 

Striping with different color naint. 14 
Strong brine for the hardening 

fluid ": 172 

Stronar brine, ouenchine in 96 

Strong close-grained backing 139' 



286 



INDEX. 



Strong jet of water in quenching. . 20 

Stubs steel 160 

Styrian steel IS 

Substances used to hold the grains. 266 
Substances which open the grain. 129 
Substitute for borax in welding. . . 187 

Successful hardening 38 

Successful metal working 20 

Sudden heat and a cold blast of air 168 
Suitable specimen for experimental 

purposes 15 

Suitable tempers for, table of 127 

Sulphur, little as possible 106 

Supervision of chemists, metal- 
lurgists, physicists, and micro- 

scopists 179 

Surface, measure of 211 

Surface of lead covered with 

broken charcoal 107 

Surface scale 96 

Surfaces, coppering polished steel.. 196 

Surfaces, decarbonized steel 24 

Surplus metal thrown out between 

the dies while working 190 

Sword blades, straightening 157 

T 

Table of articles made from crucible 
steel, giving about percentage 
of carbon they should contain. 269 

Table of average cutting speeds for 

drills 223 

Table of cutting speeds 224 

Table of decimal equivalents of 
millimeters and fractions of 
millimeters 208 

Table of decimal constants for find- 
ing diameter at bottom of 
thread 210 

Table of different standard for wire 

gage used in the U. S 219 

Table of decimal equivalents of 

parts of an inch 209 

Table of expansion from 32 degrees 

F. to 212 degrees F 35 

Table of English or America (U. S.) 

equivalent measures 211 

Table of melting points of solids. . 211 

Table of suitable temperatures of 
annealing, working and harden- 
ing 127 

Table of suitable temperatures for 
casehardening core, ovens, dry- 
ing kilns, baking channels and 
vulcanizing rubber 128 

Table of sizes of drills for stand- 
ard pine taps 218 

Table of thread parts 122 

Table of tempers to which tools 

should be drawn 125 

Table of temner colors of steel.... 128 

Table of tap drills for machine 

screw tans 218 

Table of United States standard 

screw threads 220 

Table of weights and areas of 

round, square and hexigon steel 212 

Table of wei^rhts of iron and steel 

sheets 214 

Table of weiajhts of square and 
round ba'-s of wrought iron in 
Tiounds per lineal foot 215 

Takiner from the water too soon. . . 101 

Tan blanks, reannealing 42 

Tap drills for machine screw 

threads 21 s 

Tap steel, the annealing of 41 

Taner mill 147 

Taper of twist drills for clearance. 108 

Taper reamer with three blades. . . . 199 



Taylor-White process for treating 

steel 113 

Tell-tale, using the 134 

Temper colors proof of equality in 

degree of heat only 118 

Temper drawn at leisure 143 

Temper when due to a second opera- 
tion 118 

Tempers to which steel should be 

drawn, table of 125 

Tempering 117 

Tempering at special colors Ill 

Tempering a combination cutting 

and drawing punch 173 

Tempering flat drills for hard 

stock 160 

Tempering in the charcoal fire. . . . 122 

Tempering in oil 119 

Tempering in the sand bath 119 

Tempering process which will de- 
termine accurately first heat. . 118 
Tempering rock drills in crude oil. . 120 

Tempering small punches 171 

Tempering small spiral springs.... 120 
Tempering swords and cutlasses. . . 123 

Tempering special tools . . .■ lis 

Tempering solutions 124 

Tempering thin articles 122 

Tempering wood planer knives 122 

Temperatures at which solids melt 124 
Temperatures tell-tales for use in 

hardening steel 159 

Tendency to crack . 97 

Tendency to refine 103 

Tendency of steel to crack around 

the holes 166 

Tenons soft for riveting to harden 

rods leaving 132 

Test made at the Government test- 
ing bureau 182 

Testing the chain to insure proper 

length 49 

Testing for hardness with a file... 24 

Testing for hardness 24 

Testing for heat 103 

Testing for toughness 24 

Testing for trueness 103 

Testing steel, economy in before 

using 25 

Testing tool steel 23 

Tests of steel wnder repeated 

stresses 182 

Texture restored by hammering or 

rolling 175 

That have warpea, straightened 

hardened pieces 157 

The annealing of tap steel 41 

The annealins' of malleable cast-- 
ings and the manufacture of 
malleable iron machine parts. 44 

The acme standard thread 222 

The amount of force exerted in ex- 
pansion and contraction 33 

The best steel for tools 23 

The bath 96 to 135 

The castings, the foundry and prep- 
aration of 44 

The difference, tough steel and hard 

steel 93 

The effect of slow heating and tem- 
pering 119 

The effect of water annealing 40 

The emery wheel used as a metal 

slitting saw 249 

The first effect of heat 31 

The foundry and p^t•pa^ation of the 

castings 44 

The Hrrain of steel 23 

The ha'-dening and tempering of 

press tools ^ . . . 1 f)2 

The hardening fire and the heat ... 99 



INDEX. 



287 



The hardening of long slender 

tools 103 

The heating and cooling of steel. . . 50 

The location of the heating furnace 52 

The proper heat for annealing. ... 37 

The slender tools, hardening long. . 103 

The second effect of heat 34 

The terms defined 36 

The treatment and working of well 

known brands of tool steel. . . 18 
The treatment of hign-carbon steels 15 
The Taylor-White process for treat- 
ing steel 113 

The use of clay in hardening 110 

The use of gas blast furnaces and 

heating machine 53 

The use of machints steel for press 

tools . 129 

The work, how to dump 135 

Their cause, crack in dies IGV 

Their use of emery wheels 26fc> 

Their use, gas blast forges 54 

Thick cast iron plates 159 

Thick round dies, hardening 172 

Thick scale results from high tem- 
perature 22 

Thin and delicate parts, hardening. 104 
Thin edges and exposed parts, heat- 
ing the 18 

Thin parts, hardening small parts 

and long 104 

Thread dies, hardening and temper- 
ing round Ill 

Thread parts, table of 222 

Thrust bearing rings, hardening 

five-inch 131 

Time required to machine a given 

surface 30 

Time saved 24 

Tinning acid, improved soldering 

and 196 

Tires, fastening to wheels 33 

To anneal doubtful steel 43 

To a blue, to draw small steel parts 161 

To blue steel without heating 179 

To caseharden without colors 130 

To caseharden small iron parts. . . . 141 

To caseharden with charcoal 141 

To caseharden cast iron 195 

To distinguish wrought iron and 

cast iron from steel 197 

To draw small steel parts to a blue 161 

To distinguish the grades 23 

To heat and cool steel properly .... 50 
To make edge tools from cast steel 

and iron 183 

To prodvice fine grain casehardened 

machine steel parts 139 

To prevent I'ust 3 96 

To remove scale from steel 206 

To temper gravers 160 

To temoer old files 160 

To weld cast iron 183 

To weld buggy springs 184 

Too high welding heat 14 

Tool facilities not up-to-date 113 

Tool holders and tools, their use. 28, 29 

Tool holders and tools 25 

Tool steel, testing 23 

Tool steel, the treatment and work- 
ing of well-known brands of . . IS 

Tools carrying a cutting edge 18 

Tools circular forming 203 

Tools, or parts with fine projections 108 
Tools used for bending and form- 
ing 130 

Tools, the best steel for 23 

Tools, working steel for 159 

Tools, tool holders and 25 

Tough steel and hard steel, the dif- 
ference 93 



Tougher effect to steel than bone.. 130 

Toughness, testing for 24 

Tracy, Mr. B. F 178 

Trays, heating machine with revolv- 
ing 71 

Treatment, air-hardening steel 21 

Treatment, annealed die and tool 

steel 21 

Treatment of high-speed self-hard- 
ening steels 20 

Treating steel, Taylor- White pro- 
cess for 113 

Tremendous strains 177 

Trimming dies 190 

Tumbling instead of pickling drop 

forgings 191 

Turn the bulge out 103 

Twirling around rapidly 146 

Twist drills, grinding 202 

Twisting of long tools in harden- 
ing 158 

Two cooling surfaces 180 

Two ways of making a forging hol- 
low 179 

Types of milling centers 145 

V 

Understood, casehardening as it 

should be 142 

Unequal expansion 32 

Uneven contraction provided for. . . 168 

Uneven heating, distortion through 95 

Uniform hardness and temper 106 

Uniformity of results attained .... 114 

United States Government 23 

United States War Department. . . . 108 
United States weights and measures 217 
United States measures of lengths. 217 
United States measures of surface. 217 
United States measures of volume. 217 
United States measures of weights. 217 
Universal adoption of the ther- 
mometer test 117 

Unnecessary expense in testing 

steel 24 

Upward flow of water through 

article 112 

Use for which forging are intended 191 

Use of milling cutters 154 

Use of various kinds of baths 96 

Using a punch and die which are 

both hard 163 

Using a small narrow broach 112 

Using a soft punch and a hard die 163 
Using, economy in testing steel be- 
fore 24 

Using scrap steel for malleable iron 48 

Using the tell-tale 134 

Usual methods of hardening air- 
hardening steel 113 

V 

Vapors generated in the bath 154 

Variation from a vertical position. . 109 

Variation of carbon, effects of .... 114 

Various defects in ingots 180 

Very deep casehardening 140 

Very little external heat required 

to draw it 151 

Vessels of proper wiath 123 

Very small piercing punches, hard- 
ening 171 

Very small punches, hardening.... 171 

Vitrified emery wheel 265 

W 

Walter A. Wood Mowing and Reap- 
ing Machine Company 



44 



288 



INDEX. 



Warming the work up to a blue. . . 153 
Warped, straightening pieces which 

have 121 

Warping, hardening a long punch 

so as to prevent 165 

Warping, hardening very thin tools 

so as to prevent 158 

Warping of long punches In harden- 
ing 171 

Warping, of long tools In harden- 
ing 171 

Warping, the weaker parts 101 

Washington 178 

Water and oil, hardening and tem- 
pering milling cutters In 147 

Water, annealing 39 

Water, cuts, lubricant for 196 

Water for cooling 101 

Water, kept at a boiling point. . . . 168 
Weights and areas of round, square 

and hexagon steel 212, 213 

Weights, measure of 211 

Weight of cast Iron, wrought iron, 

steel, copper and bronze 207 

Weights of iron and steel sheets. . . 214 
Weights of square and round bars 

of wrought iron 215 

Weights and measures. United 

States 217 

Weld which will not buckle or sepa- 
rate in hardening 163 

Welding composition for cast steel. . 183 

Wielding cast iron 183 

Welding, flux for soldering and. . . 187 

Welding heats 175 

Welding heat for steel should be 

higher than that for iron. . . . 175 
Welding powder for iron and steel. 183 
Welding steel to steel or steel to 

iron 175 

Wetting the fracture 23 

Wheels, approximate speeds for 

emery and polishing 267 

When a muflle is used 164 

When hardening, dipping fluted 

reamers 157 



When hardening, dipping half 

round or "gun" reamers 105 

When hardening, dipping small 

tools 156 

When the proper heat has been 

reached 153 

When worn, inci'easing the size of 

the reamer 195 

Whltworth, Sir Joseph 178 

Why special Instructions are given. Ill 

Williams & Co., J. H 180 

Wilson, Prof. E 197 

Without colors, to caseharden 130 

Without heating, to blue steel 197 

"Woodworker" 122 

Work, cleaning the 135 

Work, combination gas furnace for 

general machine shop 54 

Work, hardening draw-bridge disc 

and similar 131 

Work, laying out 196 

Work, packing and heating the. . . . 129 

Work, preparation of the 134 

Work, packing the 45 

Work, to dump the 135 

Work, to pack the 134 

Work with deep recesses 93 

Working and hardening, suitable 

temperature of annealing, 

table of 127 

Working Capital steel 21 

Working up and down rapidly.... 154 

Working steel for tools 159 

World's Fair, Chicago 181 

Worry, vexation and poor work. . . . 176 

Wrenches, drop forged 189 

Wrong, to apply the term "temper," 

when it is 117 

Wrought iron for crossheads, and 

crank pins 181 



Zinc, solder for 187 

Zinc, to color or coat 206 





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Sloane. Electricity Simplified. 

The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain 
as possible, and to show what the modern conception of electricity is. 
15S Pages. Illustrated $1.00 

Sloane. Hour to Become a Successful Electrician: 

It is the ambition of thousands of young and old to become electrical 
engineers. Not every one is prepared to spend several thousand dollars 
upon a college course, even if the three or four years requisite are at 
their disposal. It is possible to become an electrical engineer without 
this sacrifice, and this work is designed to tell "How to Become a 
Successful Electrician." without the outlay usually spent in acquiring 
the profession. 189 Pages. Illustrated. Cloth $1.00 

Sloane. Arithmetic of Electricity ; 

A Practical Treatise on Electrical Calculations of all kinds, reduced 
to a series of rules, all of the simplest forms, and involving only or- 
dinary arithmetic ; each rule illustrated by one or more practical prob- 
lerns with detailed solution of each one. Fourth Edition. Illustrated, 
138 Pages. Cloth • $1 .00 



NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO. S PUBLICATIONS. 

Sloane. Electric Toy Making, Dyiiaiuo Building and Electric Motor 
Construction : 

This work treats of the making at home of Electrical Toys, Electrical 
Apparatus, Motors, Dynamos and Instruments in general, and is de- 
signed to bring within the reach of young and old the manufacture of 
genuine and useful electrical appliances. Third Edition. Fully Illus- 
trated. 140 Pages. Cloth $1.00 

Sloane. Rubber Hand Stanipiii and the Manipulation of India Rubber: 

A practical treatise on the manufacture of all kinds of Rubber ar- 
ticles. 146 Pages. Second Edition. Cloth ?1 .00 

Sloane. liiquid Air and tlie Liquefaction of Gases: 

Containing the full theory of the subject, and giving the entire history 
of liquefaction of gases, from the earliest times to the present. It 
shows how liquid air like water is carried hundreds of miles and is 
handled in open buckets. It tells what may be expected from it in the 
near future. 365 Pages, with many Illustrations. Handsomely bound 
in Buckram. Second Edition $2.50 

Sloane. Standard Electrical Dictionary: 

A practical handbook of reference, containing definitions of about 
5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. An entirely New Edition, 
brought up to date and greatly enlarged. Complete, Concise. Con- 
venient. 682 Pages, 393 Illustrations. Handsomely bound in Cloth. 

8vo ?3.0© 

CJsher. The Modern Machinist; 

A practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of modern 
machijieshop practice, and the applications of recent improved ap- 
pliances, tools and devices for facilitating, duplicating and expediting 
the construction of machines and tlieir parts. A new book from cover 
to cover. Third Edition. 257 Engravings. 322 Pages. Cloth $2 50 

"Van Dervoort. Modern Machine Shop Tools; Their Construction^ 
Operation and Manipulation, Including Both Hand and Ma- 
chine Tools: 

A new work treating the subject in a concise and comprehensive man- 
ner. A chapter on Gearing and Belting, covering the more important 
cases, also the Transmission of Power by Shafting with formulas and 
examples is included. This book is strictly up-to-date and is the most 
complete, concise and useful work ever published on this subject. 
Containing about 600 Pages and 600 Illustrations . ?4.00 

Wood\irorth. Dies, Their Construction and Use for the Modern 
Worlting of Sheet Metals : 

A treatise upon the designing, constructing and use of tools, fix- 
tures and devices, together with the manner in which they should be 
used in the power press, for the cheap and rapid production of sheet 
metal parts and articles. Comprising fundamental designs and prac- 
tical points by which sheet metal parts may be produced at the mini- 
mum of cost to the maximum of output, together with special refer- 
ence to the hardening and tempering of press tools, and to the classes 
of work which may be produced to the best advantage by the use of 
dies in the power press. Containing 400 Pages. 500 Illustrations . . $3.00 

"Woodwortli. Hardening, Tempering, Annealing and Forging of 
Steel: 

A new book containing special directions for the successful hardening 
and tempering of all steel tools. Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, ream- 
ers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies and all kinds or 
sheet-metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery, and metal- 
cutting tools of all descriptions, as well as for all implements ot steel, 
both large and small, the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and 
tempering processes are presented. The uses to which the leaaing brands 
of steel may be ada'-ted arei concisely presented, and their treatment or 
working' under different conditions explained, as are also the special 
methods for the hardening and temper ng of special brands. Containing 
about 320 Pages, about 250 Illustrations $-:.iw 



